THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


PEARLS  and 

PEARLING 


COPYRIGHT  1913. 
BY  FUR  NEWS  PUBLISHING  CO. 


Pearls  and  Pearling 


BY 


HERBERT  H.  VERTREES 


FUR  NEWS  PUBLISHING  CO. 

71  West  23rd  Street  NEW  YORK 


PREFACE. 

A  FEW  years  ago  I  temporarily  set  aside  my  work 
as  a  salesman  to  hunt  for  pearls  on  the  Illinois 
River. 

The  work  in  the  pure  air  and  sunshine ;  and  the  evei 
present  hope  of  finding  valuable  pearls,  were  so  fascinat- 
ing I  did  not  like  to  leave  the  occupation,  so  I  continued 
with  the  work  and  studied  most  of  the  subjects  relating 
to  it. 

Desiring  to  prepare  for  the  business  in  a  very  thor- 
ough manner  I  tried  to  purchase  a  book  upon  the  sub- 
ject, but  none  was  printed.  There  has  been  a  general 
demand  for  information  on  pearl  hunting  and,  at  the 
request  of  the  Fur  News  Publishing  Company,  I  have 
written  .this  book,  which  I  hope  will  prove  of  value  to  my 
fellow-men. 

It  is  intended  especially  for  pearl  hunters  and  those 
who  contemplate  entering  the  profession,  although  I  shall 
be  pleased  if  it  is  of  interest  to  jewelers  and  lovers 
of  pearls  in  general. 

My  aim  has  been  to  explain  all  parts  of  the  work  so 
thoroughly  that  one  entirely  unacquainted  will  after  read- 
ing this  book,  not  only  understand  the  methods  and  ap- 
pliances, but  be  able  to  hunt  for  pearls  successfully.  I 

6 


PREFACE  7 

earnestly  hope  that  all  who  read  this  book  may  be  so 
fortunate  as  to  find  valuable  pearls. 

I  am  pleased  to  thank  the  friends  who  have  supplied 
photographs,  and  am  especially  grateful  to  Messrs. 
Combes  &  Van  Roden,  of  Philadelphia,  for  the  loan  of 
the  original  photographs  of  members  of  the  English 
nobility. 

HERBERT  H.  VERTREES. 

Pittsfield,  Illinois,  May  23,  1913. 


M363186 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  Page 

I     The  Fresh-Water  Pearl 13 

II     The  Origin  of  the  Pearl 19 

III  The  History  of  the  Pearl 29 

IV  Pearls   are  Found   in  Most  Rivers  of  the 

United  States  and  Canada 39 

V     The  Life  of  the  Unio 49 

VI     Perils  and  Enemies  of  Mussels 60 

VII     The  Need  of  Laws  for  the  Benefit  of  Pearl 

Hunters    65 

VIII     Various  Kinds  of  Unio  Shells 72 

IX     Value  of  Uses  of  Shells 87 

X     How  to  Prospect  for  Pearls 99 

XI     How  to  Make  a  Crow-foot  Dredge  Outfit.  .    108 
XII     How  to  Use  the  Crow-foot  Dredge  Outfit.  .    121 

XIII  The  Dip  Net  and  Its  Use 130 

XIV  Other  Methods  of  Pearl  Fishing 137 

XV     Methods  of  Opening  Shells  and  Extracting 

Pearls   145 

XVI     Why  Trappers  Make  Good  Pearl  Hunters.    15 [ 


8 


CONTENTS  9 

Chapter  Page 

XVII     The   Particular   Kind   of   "Crippled"   Shell 

that  Yields  the  Pearl   155 

The  Influence  of  Local  Conditions  upon  the 

Color  of  Shells  and  Pearls 165 

v  XIX     The   Luster   of   the   Pearl — Its   Cause   Ex- 
plained      173 

--  XX     The  Care,  Value  and  Sale  of  Pearls 178 

XXI     Imperfect    Pearls    and    How    to    Improve 

Them    190 

XXII     Imitations  and  Tests  for  Detecting  Them..  194 

XXIII     An  Interesting  Exhibit  of  Pearls 201 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

High   and  Low   Button   Pearls Frontispiece 

Ball  Pearl  and  Pear  Pearl 12 

Japanese    Culture    Pearls 28 

H.   M.   Queen   Alexandra 32 

Lady  Howard  de  Walden 43 

Interior  view  of  Quadrula  heros,  or  "Washboard"  shell....  51 

Quadrula  heros,  or  "Washboard"  mussel  exposed 53 

Lampsilis  reclus,  or  "Black  Sand   Shell" 56 

Rock  bass  infected  with  glochidia 59 

The  Quadrula  heros,  or  "Washboard"   73 

The  Quadrula  ebena,  or  "Niggerhead"   73 

The  Lampsilis  rectus,  or  "Black  Sand  Shell" -76 

The  Lampsilis  anodontoides,  or  "Yellow  Sand  Shell" 76 

The  Lampsilis  fallaciosus,  or  "Slough  Sand  Shell" 76 

The  Quadrula  undulata,  or  "Three  Ridge" 78 

The  Lampsilis  ligamentinus,  or  "Mucket" 78 

The    Quadrula    pustulosa,    or    "Warty-back,"    or    "Pimple- 
back"    78 

The  Tritogonia  tuberculata,  or  "Buckhorn,"  or  "Deerhorn"  81 

The  Quadrula  lachrymosa,  or  "Stranger,"  or   "Maple-leaf"  81 

The  Plagiola  securis,  or  "Butter-fly" 81 

The  Lampsilis  ventricosus,  or  "Pocket-book" 83 

The  Symphonota  complanata,  or  "Razor-back,"  or  "Hatchet- 
back"    83 

The  Quadrula  obliqua,  or  "Pigtoe" 85 

The  Quadrula  metanevra,  or  "Monkey-face" 85 

The  Unio  gibbosus,  or  "Ladyfinger,"  or  "Spectacle-case" ...  85 

Gatlin's   Landing 90 

"Washboard"  shell  from  which  button  blanks  have  been  cut.  93 


10 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  n 

The  Marchioness  of  Londonderry 98 

View  of  Illinois  River,  showing  method  of  locating  mussel 

beds  105 

"Crowfoot"  Dredge  Outfits 109 

The  "Mule"  Ill 

"Crow-foot"  hook  112 

Hooks  and  Lines  113 

Outline  Shape  of  "Crow-foot" 114 

Machine  for  Making  Twisted  Hooks .116 

The  "Crow-foot"  Dredge  Outfit  in  Use 127 

The  Dip  Net 131 

The  Dip  Net  in  Use  135 

Shell  Tongs  139 

Shell  Fork  141 

Eagle  Claw  Clam  Rake 143 

Vat  and  Table  for  "Cooking  Out"  and  Sorting  Shells 149 

Exterior  View  of  the  Worthless  "Cripple" 156 

Exterior  View  of  the  Valuable  "Cripple" 157 

Interior  View  of  the  Worthless  "Cripple" 158 

Interior  View  of  the  Valuable  "Cripple,"  which  Yields  the 

Pearl 159 

Plate  I.  Typical  Pearl  Shapes,  Natural  Size 168  and  169 

The  Countess  of  Stradbroke  175 

Cross  Section  View  of  Pearl  and  Onion 177 

The  Marchioness  of  Lansdowne 180 

Various  Forms  of  Pearls 183 

Plate  II.  Typical  Pearl  Shapes,  Natural  Size 184  and  185 

Some  Average  Run  Slugs  187 

Japanese  Culture  Pearl  Attached  to  Shell 195 


CHAPTER    I. 
THE   FRESH-WATER   PEARL. 

PEARLS    are    lustrous   gems   produced    by    certain 
Moilusks.     They  consist  of  thin  concentric  layers 
of  carbonate  of  lime  interstratified  with  animal 
membrane,  and  are  the  result  of  an  unusual  secretion, 
primarily   caused   by  the   introduction   of    a  parasite   or 
some  other  object  within  the  mantle. 

The  exact  composition  of  a  pearl  is  as  follows : 

Carbonate  of  lime 91.72% 

Organic  matter   5-94% 

Water 2.34% 

These  gems  are  divided  into  two  classes,  known  as 
Oriental  and  Fresh- Water  Pearls. 

The  Oriental,  or  Ocean  Pearl,  is  produced  by  the  Avi- 
cula  Maryaritifera,  or  Pearl  Oyster.  Of  this  bivalve 
there  are  many  varieties  all  differing  in  size,  color,  weight 
and  quality  of  the  shell. 

The  most  important  Oriental  Pearl  Fisheries  are  the 
iollowing:  Ceylon,  Australia,  Gambier,  South  Sea  Isl- 
ands, Arabian  Sea,  Bands,  Costa  Rica,  Aroe,  Haiti,  Ma- 
nilla, Venezuela,  Panama  and  Lower  California. 

The  Fresh-Water  Pearl  is  produced  by  a  mussel  known 
as  Unio  Margaritifera.  This  name  is  applied  to  the  mus- 
sels of  our  country.  The  name  Naiades  is  a  more  gen- 


14  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

eral  term  and  includes  all  fresh-water  mussels,  which  are 
distributed  over  the  entire  globe  and  are  found  through- 
out the  streams  and  lakes  of  all  continents,  as  well  as 
all  the  larger  islands  and  some  smaller  islands. 

The  Unio  Margaritifera  is  very  common  in  North 
America  and  especially  in  the  United  States.  These 
have  a  large  variety  of  species  also,  and  there  are  known 
to  be  living  in  North  America  nearly  600  different  species 
of  them.  Most  of  these  are  found  in  the  Mississippi 
drainage  area  and  other  streams  emptying  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  from  the  north. 

Many  Mollusks  are  found  in  the  streams  emptying 
into  the  Great  Lakes  and  St.  Lawrence  River.  Many  are 
also  found  in  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  rivers  emptying  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  do  not  con- 
tain many  Mollusks  and  are  not  known  as  pearl  streams. 

Most  of  the  Fresh- Water  Pearls  come  from  the  United 
States.  In  this  book  we  shall  give  our  attention  almost 
entirely  to  subjects  relating  to  Fresh-Water  Pearls.  Most 
of  the  Unionidae  are  Margaritiferous,  or  pearl  bearing, 
although  many  of  these  varieties  are  uncommon  and  so 
we  get  most  of  our  pearls  from  the  varieties  that  are 
most  abundant.  Although  these  are  very  plentiful,  the 
pearls  are  very  scarce  and  one  has  no  assurance  of  find- 
ing a  pearl  in  a  given  number  of  shells.  In  some  locali- 
ties there  are  more  pearls  than  other  places;  yet  they 
are  scarce,  everywhere.  This  is  not  a  bad  feature  after 
all  as  the  scarcity  of  the  pearls  increases  the  value  of  the 
few  that  are  found. 

In  Europe  the  Fresh- Water  Pearls  have  held  an  im- 


THE  FRESH  WATER  PEARL  15 

portant  place  among  the  gems  of  the  world  since  ancient 
times.  They  were  used  as  articles  of  trade  and  barter 
with  the  Romans,  and  it  is  said  that  Caesar  undertook  his 
British  expedition  partly  for  the  purpose  of  finding 
pearls,  and  Pliny  reports  his  bringing  home  a  shield  of 
British  pearls,  which  he  dedicated  to  Venus  Genetrix, 
and  hung  up  in  her  temple.  An  account  of  the  pearl 
fisheries  of  Ireland  was  published  describing  the  way  the 
mussels  lived  in  the  swift  rivers  there.  The  men  would 
find  about  one  good  pearl  in  10,600  mussels. 

Between  1761  and  1764  the  Conway  River,  in  Scotland, 
supplied  the  London  market  with  about  $50,000.00  worth 
of  pearls.  The  rivers  of  Cumberland,  Conway  and  Tay, 
in  Scotland,  have  in  the  past  yielded  fine  pearls,  and  these 
gems  are  still  found  there. 

Ireland  still  places  pearls  on  the  European  market. 
These  are  from  the  Armagh  River,  in  County  Tyrone, 
and  the  Slavey  River,  in  County  Wexford.  Some  small 
pearls  are  found  in  the  lakes  in  Finland.  These  are 
bluish  white  in  color  and  resemble  the  Scotch  pearls. 
Many  beautiful  pearls  have  been  found  in  the  rivers  of 
France,  Germany,  Austria,  Bavaria  and  many  other  coun- 
tries. 

In  the  United  States  fresh-water  pearls  were  found 
several  hundred  years  previous  to  the  visit  of  Columbus. 
In  the  prehistoric  times  the  Mound  Builders  who  used  to 
inhabit  this  country  used  these  gems  as  ornaments,  and 
archaeologists  have  unearthened  large  collections  of  pearls 
from  the  mounds  in  Ohio. 

These  pearls,  however,  were  of  no  value  because  they 


1 6  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

had  been  pierced  by  a  hot  wire  and  also  partly  decayed 
by  lying  in  the  earth  for  such  a  long  period  of  time. 

When  Columbus  discovered  America,  he  found  the  In- 
dians wearing  numbers  of  fresh-water  pearls. 

Upon  his  return  to  Spain,  he  presented  to  Queen  Isa- 
bella a  magnificent  necklace  of  these  American  fresh- 
water pearls.  Other  discoverers  also  found  the  natives 
with  these  pearls  and  prized  them  very  highly,  and  some 
were  so  disrespectful  as  to  rob  the  graves  of  Indian 
chiefs,  while  the  Indian  relatives  of  the  dead  monarchs 
were  compelled  to  allow  the  depreciations. 

The  first  great  "find"  of  our  American  people  occurred 
in  1857  at  Notch  Brook,  near  Paterson,  N.  J.  It  weighed 
93  grains  and  was  sold  to  the  Empress  Eugenie,  of 
France.  It  became  known  as  the  Queen  Pearl.  This 
event  created  great  excitement  and  pearl  hunting  began 
throughout  the  country,  and  Unios  at  Notch  Brook  and 
elsewhere  were  destroyed  by  the  million,  but  without 
much  success.  The  experience  at  Notch  Brook  is  only 
one  of  many  "pearl  fevers."  In  almost  any  locality  where 
some  good  pearls  have  been  found,  many  people  leave 
good  positions  and  nearly  every  one  goes  to  the  river  to 
hunt  for  the  very  elusive  pearl.  The  wholesale  destruc- 
tion of  the  mussels  soon  exhausts  the  local  supply  and 
the  excitement  subsides,  and  very  few  are  rewarded  for 
their  work. 

After  a  period  of  from  five  to  ten  years,  during  which 
interval  the  mussels  have  an  opportunity  to  increase  in 
size  and  numbers,  the  pearl  fever  is  sometimes  repeated 
with  the  same  results.  In  the  experiences  just  mentioned, 


THE  FRESH  WATER  PEARL  17 

the  methods  and  appliances  usually  employed  in  the  pearl 
hunts  were  very  crude  and  primitive,  and  the  people 
were  without  knowledge  or  skill  in  their  work.  It  is 
quite  likely  that  a  man  who  has  a  good  knowledge  of  the 
business,  and  who  is  skillful  in  the  use  of  some  of  our 
modern  appliances  for  pearl  hunting,  can  now  go  into 
the  same  localities  and  work  with  a  reasonable  degree  of 
success. 

At  the  present  time  the  industry  known  as  pearl  hunt- 
ing differs  widely  from  what  it  was  many  years  ago. 
There  is  now  in  most  instances  a  market  for  the  shells 
and  the  appliances  and  methods  used  were  not  thought  of 
twenty-five  years  ago. 

The  pearl  hunting  industry,  or  profession,  as  we  may 
rightfully  speak  of  it,  is  supported  and  elevated  by  many 
thousands  of  our  best  citizens  who  depend  on  this  line 
of  work  for  the  necessities  and  comforts  of  life. 

These  men  add  continuously  to  the  wealth  of  our  land 
by  raising  from  the  watery  depths  the  shells  for  many 
economic  uses  and  the  lustrous  fresh-water  pearls  for 
adornment. 

As  a  result  of  the  efforts  of  pearl  hunters  the  markets 
are  supplied  with  thousands  of  American  fresh-water 
pearls  which  are  now  the  pride  and  delight  of  many 
ladies  in  America  and  Europe. 

Among  these  American  pearls  are  many  of  extraordi- 
nary size  and  beauty.  Some  of  the  large  white  pearls 
are  so  irridescent  and  clear  that  they  possess  great  radi- 
ance and  luster  and  are  used  in  centers  of  very  famous 
necklaces. 


i8  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

Another  important  feature  of  the  American  fresh- 
water pearls  is  the  great  variety  of  tints  and  colors 
found  among  them.  This  is  not  found  in  pearls  of  other 
lands,  excepting  ocean  fisheries  of  Lower  California,  Co- 
lombia, Mexico  and  Panama,  Gambier,  and  several  un- 
important fisheries.  In  our  fresh-water  pearls  we  find 
sky  blue,  peacock  green,  lavender,  ruby,  maroon,  cherry, 
salmon,  rose,  bronze,  purple,  pink,  gold,  wine,  gray, 
green,  silver,  black,  bright  yellow,  red,  blue,  lead  and 
brown.  In  fact,  all  shades  of  the  rainbow  are  dupli- 
cated in  these  gems. 

In  addition  to  their  color  and  sheen  they  are  very  irri- 
descent.  On  account  of  their  radiant  layers  some  are 
more  lustrous  than  the  Ceylon  pearls,  and  many  of  the 
lighter  colored  irridescent  ones  are  nearly  translucent. 

For  a  long  time  the  American  fresh-water  pearls  were 
not  fully  appreciated  by  the  European  aristocracy  and 
had  to  be  offered  under  the  name  of  oriental  pearls  to 
be  sold ;  but  now  they  are  offered  under  their  real  name 
and  stand  on  their  own  merits  and  reputation,  and  have 
nearly  reached  their  deserved  economic  position  among 
the  gems  of  the  world.  Four  rare  American  fresh-water 
pearls  are  very  artistically  portrayed  in  this  book.  The 
ball  pearl,  pear  pearl,  high-button  pearl  and  low-button 
are  well  displayed  in  the  illustrations. 


CHAPTER    II. 
THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  PEARL. 

ONE  may  examine  many  thousands  of  mussels 
without  finding  a  pearl.  This  fact  often  induces 
people  to  wonder  why  all  mussels  do  not  contain 
gems ;  or  why  any  of  the  mollusks  produce  them ;  or  what 
really  causes  the  pearl  to  form.  Many  interested  peo- 
ple have  studied  the  origin  of  pearls  and  many  theories 
have  been  advanced  by  noted  scientists,  but  until  the  last 
few  years  there  seemed  to  be  no  solution  of  the  problem. 

In  order  that  we  may  consider  this  subject  properly  it 
will  be  necessary  to  first  show  the  difference  between 
the  fine  pearls  and  the  various  other  nacreous  formations. 
The  fine  pearls  are  found  in  the  posterior  part  of  the 
mussel,  usually  loose  within  the  mantle  of  the  mollusk. 
Sometimes  these  become  attached  to  the  shell  near  the 
mantle,  and  in  very  rare  instances  they  go  astray  into 
some  other  part  of  the  shell.  The  other  nacreous  forma- 
tions are  the  common,  irregularly  shaped  pearls  which 
are  not  to  be  compared  with  the  fine  pearls  in  value. 
These  are  baroques  and  slugs  and  are  not  formed  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  fine  pearls. 

They  seem  to  originate  from  a  number  of  causes. 
Sometimes  the  shell  of  a  mollusk  is  injured  in  an  acci- 
dent and  some  parts  are  broken  off  from  the  hinge  or 
others  parts  of  the  shell.  Occasionally  they  seem  to  be 


2o  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

small  lumps  of  mother-of-pearl  covered  by  the  secretions 
of  the  mollusk.  Then  again  they  appear  to  be  due  to  an 
irritation  caused  by  the  introduction  of  some  foreign  ob- 
ject. All  these  objects  gradually  become  coated  with 
layers  of  nacre. 

These  are  found  in  a  large  variety  of  forms ;  but 
never  assume  the  perfect  shape  of  any  of  the  styles  of 
the  fine  pearls. 

In  this  chapter,  therefore,  we  shall  give  our  attention 
mostly  to  the  study  of  the  formations  that  are  only  found 
in  or  near  the  mantle  at  the  posterior  or  thin  end  of  the 
shell. 

As  the  pearl  has  been  known  for  so  many  centuries,  it 
is  quite  probable  that  its  origin  was  a  much  debated  ques- 
tion in  ancient  times ;  yet  the  old  historians  have  not  re- 
corded anything  more  than  a  few  far-fetched  stories  that 
are  referred  to  as  legends  and  that  do  not  offer  any 
reasonable  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  this  brilliant 
jewel. 

For  more  than  350  years  the  best  scientists  have  been 
studying  the  origin  of  the  pearl.  Their  efforts  have  re- 
sulted in  many  theories  which  differ  widely  and  all  are 
interesting.  Our  first  record  is  that  of  the  experience  of 
Rondelet  in  1554.  He  considered  pearls  to  be  concre- 
tions due  to  disease,  like  the  calculi  of  mammals.  In  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  some  writers  regarded 
pearls  as  the  eggs  of  the  mollusk.  In  1826  a  scientist 
named  Home  advanced  a  similar  theory,  stating  that 
pearls  were  formed  around  eggs  that  had  failed  to  be  ex- 
pelled by  the  oviduct. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  PEARL  21 

The  scientist  Diguet,  who  studied  this  question  in  the 
pearl  oyster  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  said  there  were 
three  stages  in  the  development  of  the  pearl.  In  the  first 
stage  there  is  a  sack  filled  with  a  translucent,  serous 
liquid,  the  effusion  of  which  is  due  probably  to  irritation 
caused  by  a  parasite.  In  the  second  stage  the  liquid 
gradually  thickens  and  assumes  the  appearance  of  jelly. 
Then  it  changes  into  conchyolin  and  the  mass  divides 
into  concentric  layers  separated  by  interstices.  The  third 
stage  is  the  petrification  or  calcination  of  the  pearl  by  the 
filling  of  these  interstices  with  a  crystallized  calcareous 
deposit. 

The  famous  German  naturalist,  Von  Baer,  in  1830 
made  the  statement  that  the  central  nucleus  of  a  pearl 
was  a  small  animalcule  or  worm.  The  Italian  naturalist 
De  Filippi,  in  1852  again  brought  out  the  theory  of  the 
parasitical  origin  of  pearls.  He  attributed  the  frequency 
of  pearls  in  the  Anodonta  cygnea  of  the  Lake  of  Rac- 
conigi  in  the  royal  park  to  the  presence  of  a  parasitic 
worm,  Distonium  duplicatum  in  the  mantle  of  the  mol- 
lusk. 

In  1856  Kuchenmeister  stated  that  the  pearls  of  the 
rivers  in  Saxony,  had  as  their  nuclei  small  ticks,  or  mites. 
Mobias  devoted  considerable  time  to  the  pearl  oyster 
on  the  western  coast  of  America.  It  was  his  opinion 
that  the  formation  of  pearls  in  these  mollusks  was  due  to 
a  parasitical  worm.  Two  famous  scientists,  Kelaart  and 
Humbert,  announced  that  the  Cercaria,  Filaria,  and  three 
other  helminths  which  they  found  in  the  pearl  oyster  of 
Ceylon,  acted  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of  the 


22  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

pearls  of  this  mollusk.  The  views  of  these  men  were 
confirmed  by  M.  Edgar  Thurston  in  1894. 

In  1897  M.  A.  Giard  noticed  that  mollusks  produced 
irregular  deposits  of  conchiolin  and  lime  around  the  para- 
site. 

In  1902  Jameson,  of  London,  explained  that  the  for- 
mation of  pearls  in  the  edible  mussel,  Mytilus  cdutis,  is 
due  to  irritation  caused  by  the  Distoma. 

Two  noted  English  naturalists,  Herdman  and  Hornell, 
after  three  inspections  of  the  oyster  banks,  made  a  state- 
ment to  the  effect  that  they  had  examined  many  hun- 
dreds of  oysters  and  had  finally  concluded  that  grains  of 
sand  and  other  inorganic  particles  did  not  form  the  nuclei 
of  pearls,  except  in  unusual  instances,  such  as  injury  to 
the  mollusk  by  breaking  the  shell  which  would  allow 
sand  to  enter.  According  to  these  English  naturalists, 
the  nucleus  of  the  fine  pearl  of  Margaratifera  vulgaris  is 
the  embryo  of  a  worm  of  the  genus  Tetrarhynchus. 

The  famous  scientist,  Dr.  L.  G.  Seurat,  in  examining 
the  Margaratifera  cumingi,  or  pearl  oyster  of  the  Gam- 
bier  Islands  found  that  the  formation  of  pearls  is  due  to 
irritation  caused  by  the  embryo  of  a  worm  of  the  Tylo- 
cephalum. 

Investigations  of  American  fresh-water  mussels  for  the 
purpose  of  learning  the  origin  of  pearls  have  also  been 
carried  on  by  our  scientists. 

It  has  only  been  in  recent  years,  however,  that  the  sub- 
ject has  engaged  their  attention. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  in  charge  of 
Hon.  George  M.  Bowers,  Commissioner,  has  accom- 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  PEARL  23 

plished  some  very  wonderful  feats  in  the  various  tasks 
that  concern  the  fresh-water  mussels  of  our  country. 

Among  the  scientists  in  the  Government  service  who 
have  contributed  much  valuable  information  are:  Dr. 
Barton,  W.  Everman,  Chief  of  the  Division  of  Scientific 
Inquiry  of  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries;  George  Lefevre, 
Winterton  C.  Curtis,  H.  Walton  Clark,  Charles  B.  Wil- 
son, S.  E.  Meek,  Ernest  Danglade  and  R.  E.  Coker,  Ph. 
D.  All  of  these  men  have  proved  by  the  results  of  their 
efforts  that  they  are  well  qualified  for  this  kind  of  work 
for  their  country.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  all  of  them  may 
continue  in  the  service  in  which  they  have  proved  them- 
selves so  valuable. 

While  their  work  has  been  largely  in  the  investigations 
of  the  Unionidae,  with  reference  to  the  various  economic 
questions  relating  to  these  mollusks,  yet  they  have  also 
studied  the  origin  of  the  fresh-water  pearl.  One  of  the 
most  important  of  these  investigations  will  be  mentioned, 
viz :  The  report  entitled,  "The  Mussel  Fauna  of  the 
Maumee  River,"  by  H.  Walton  Clark  and  Charles  B. 
Wilson.  In  this  record  eleven  pages  are  devoted  to  the 
parasites  of  mussels.  These  men  found  nine  parasites 
which  will  be  described  briefly : 

i.  Cotylasptis  insignis,  Leidy.  A  small  organism 
which  to  the  naked  eye  resembles  a  pale  leech.  The  body 
is  trumpet  shaped  and  the  ventral  surface  has  a  large 
ovate  disk  cut  up  by  partitions.  By  this  disk  the  animal 
adheres  to  the  mussel  and  lives  in  the  axils  of  the  inner 
gills. 

It  was  most  common  in  Anadonta  grandis  and  was  also 


24  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

found  in  most  of  the  other  mussels.  One  example  of 
Lampsilis  rectus  contained  sixty-seven  of  these  parasites. 
They  do  not  seem  to  harm  the  mussels. 

2.  Aspidogaster  conchicola,  Von   Baer  is   similar  to 
the  one  just  mentioned,  but  much  larger  and  has  a  larger 
adhering  disk.     This  parasite  affects  various  species  of 
mussels,  but  prefers  Anadonta,  Symphynota  Complanata 
and  Lampsilis  Alatus,  in  which  many  are  found.    It  usu- 
ally lives  in  the  pericardial  cavity  of  the  host.     It  is  pos- 
sible these  may  occasionally   form  hinge  pearls,  as  ti'.e 
shape  of  the  two  are  quite  similar. 

3.  The  Marginal  Cyst  Distomid.    This  distomid  forms 
spherical  cysts  and  is  fairly  common,  especially  in  Lamp- 
silis ligamentinus  and  L.  ventricosus.     Some  were  found 
in  one  Indrula  undulate  and  one  Symphynota  costata.  It 
is  probably  the  species  discovered  by  H.  M.  Kelly,  who 
noticed   it  in   four  examples   of  L.   ligamentinus.     The 
cysts  were  usually  found  along  the  edge  of  the  mantle, 
generally  in  the  muscular  portion  below  the  pallial  line. 
They  are  also  frequently  found  in  the  adductor  muscles, 
and  especially  in  the  lower  part  of  the  foot  where  occa- 
sionally many  are  found.    They  seem  to  prefer  muscular 
tissue.    Sometimes  cysts  of  various  ages  are  found  in  the 
same  mussels.     The  scientists  carefully  broke  the  crust 
surrounding  one  of  the  younger  cysts,  and  the  released 
distomid  crawled  about  slowly.     It  was  necessary  to  use 
the  miscroscope  to  study  the  minute  distomid.  This  para- 
site often  causes  irregular  blisters  and  stains  the  shell  a 
steel  blue  color,  where  the  cysts  are  near  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  mantle.     Then,  too,  as  the  cysts  increase  in 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  PEARL  25 

size,  they  form  nodules  in  the  mantle  and  cause  the  shell 
to  be  built  out  around  them,  so  that  they  leave  pits  in  the 
nacre  similar  to  pearls.  The  marginal  cyst  distomid  is 
of  especial  interest  on  account  of  its  connection  with 
pearl  formation.  Suspicion  that  this  distomid  concerned 
the  formation  of  the  pearls  was  aroused  when  the  objects 
were  first  found,  as  their  form  and  position  in  the  mantle 
were  especially  suggestive.  This  suspicion  was  intensi- 
fied by  frequently  finding  small  round  pearls  in  the 
mantle  of  mussels,  closely  associated  with  the  cysts. 
Finally  one  of  these  pearls  was  examined  and  a  cyst  was 
found  to  be  the  nucleus  of  the  pearl. 

The  marginal  cyst  distomid  is  very  widely  distributed, 
being  found  in  the  Mississippi,  Illinois,  and  many  other 
rivers. 

4.  The  Distomid  of  O shorn. — Anadonta  was  often 
affected  with  small  white  sporocysts,  which  covered  the 
outside  surface  of  the  mantle  next  to  the  nacre.  The 
nacre  of  these  mussels  was  often  raised  into  a  number  of 
sharp,  pearly  blisters  conforming  with  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  sporocysts,  and  indicate  that  the  sporocysts  had 
been  actually  covered  with  nacre.  Some  sporocysts  were 
carefully  examined.  The  skin  of  the  sporocysts  was 
transparent  enough  to  reveal,  in  the  interior,  the  cercarial. 
It  has  been  learned  that  the  cercarial  later  come  out  from 
their  sporocysts  and  pass  through  various  changes  until 
it  has  the  typical  form  of  a  Distomum,  when  it  moves  up 
into  the  umbonal  region  of  the  mussel  and  acquires  a 
pinkish  color.  There  it  remains  and  stains  the  nacre  a 
salmon  color.  The  distomid  of  Osborn  is  said  to  form 
dorsal  baroque  pearls  in  the  anadonta. 


26  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

5.  The  Distomid  of  Kelly  is  very  similar  to  the  Dis- 
to  mid  of  Osborn.    However,  they  are  not  so  common  and 
are  not  usually  associated  with  sporocysts  or  cercariae. 
It  does  not  produce  a  salmon  colored  stain  or  any  other 
stain,  usually.     This  distomid  is  frequently  found  in  the 
thicker  shelled  mussels  such  as  Lampsilis  ventricosus,  L. 
Hgamentinus,  Obovaria  circulus,  and  especially  in  Quad- 
rula  tuberculata  and  Unio  gibbosus. 

It  is  said  that  most  of  the  dorsal  baroques  which  are 
found  by  pearl  hunters  are  formed  through  the  activities 
of  this  parasite. 

6.  Bucephalus  polymorphus,  von  Baer  is  a  common 
parasite  which  affects  many  mussels.     It  has  been  found 
to  be  very  dangerous  to  mussels,  and  is  probably  to  be 
regarded  as  a  parasite. 

8.  Leeches  were  found  quite  frequently  on  the  inside 
of  the  shells  of  the  anadonta,  and  are  probably  para- 
sites. 

9.  Ata.v  ypsilophorus  was  a  common  parasite  and  was 
particularly  common  on  anadonta.    It  has  been  suggested 
that  the  eggs  of  the  Atax  may  lead  to  the  formation  of 
pearls ;  but  this  has  not  been  proved. 

As  a  rule  the  anadontas  and  other  thin  shelled  mus- 
sels are  more  heavily  parasited  than  the  thick  shells,  and 
parasites  are  more  abundant  in  shallow,  warm  and  quiet 
pools  than  in  rivers. 

There  has  been  a  theory  in  regard  to  the  origin  of 
pearls  in  which  a  grain  of  sand  or  small  pebble  was  said 
to  be  the  nucleus  of  a  pearl.  In  some  localities  this 
theory  is  accepted  as  a  fact,  yet  from  the  experiences 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  PEARL  27 

of  the  scientists  recorded  we  are  unable  to  find  any  who 
advance  the  sand  or  pebble  theory.  Some  admit  that 
this  may  be  the  cause  of  fine  pearls  in  rare  instances 
or  that  such  foreign  particles  may  be  the  cause  of  the  for- 
mation of  baroques  or  slugs  very  frequently,  yet  practi- 
cally all  of  these  learned  men  have  returned  a  verdict  in 
favor  of  the  parasitical  origin  of  fine  pearls.  The  author 
has  also  given  considerable  attention  to  the  origin  of 
pearls,  and  in  his  various  experiences  as  a  pearl  hunter 
on  different  rivers,  has  found  a  large  variety  of  condi- 
tions, and  he  is  a  firm  believer  in  the  parasitical  origin  of 
fine  pearls  in  most  instances,  and  in  the  parasitical  origin 
of  baroques  and  slugs  in  many  instances,  although  he  has 
found  many  baroques  and  slugs  which  were  undoubtedly 
formations  due  to  accidents  in  which  the  shells  were 
broken. 

At  present,  pearls  are  being  produced  artifically  by  the 
Japanese.  These  are  called  culture  pearls.  A  small  por- 
celain dome  is  attached  to  the  inside  of  the  shell  and 
cemented  in  place,  this  becomes  covered  with  layers  of 
nacre  and,  when  taken  from  the  shell,  is  joined  to  an- 
other dome  of  mother  of  pearl  and  placed  upon  the  mar- 
ket. These  are  culture  pearls  and  cannot  be  sold  as  real 
pearls. 

The  Chinese  have  also  made  some  progress  in  the  pro- 
duction of  artificial  pearls  and  their  method  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  Japanese. 

It  will  be  seen  that  pearls  can  be  formed  in  several 
ways,  and  the  old,  old  problem  regarding  the  origin  of 
the  pearl  is  now  almost  solved. 


JAPANESE    CULTURE    PEARLS.       NATURAL    SIZE. 
(Prom  Bulletin   United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries') 


CHAPTER    III. 
THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PEARL. 

IN  turning  the  pages  of  ancient,  medieval  and  modern 
history  we  find  recorded  the  deeds  of  the  people 
of  all  nations,  and  always,  even  as  far  back  as  the 
earliest  dawn  of  civilization  we  can  see  the  tender  light 
of  the  lustrous  pearl  shining  softly  and  radiantly,  from 
the  crowns  of  kings  in  nearly  all  lands. 

The  glimmering,  shimmering  light  of  the  wondrous 
pearl  has  attracted  and  charmed  the  rulers  and  people  of 
all  nations.  Chinese,  Japanese,  Hindu,  Egyptian,  Ro- 
man, Greek,  Macedonian,  Italian,  Persia,  Austrian, 
German,  French,  English,  Spanish,  Australian,  Polyne- 
sian, African,  Turk,  Arab,  Indian,  American  and  many 
others  have  been  won  by  the  subdued  splendor  of  this 
precious  gem. 

About  350  B.  C.  a  writer  of  Myteline,  in  the  Island 
of  Lesbos,  mentioned  pearls  that  were  found  in  the  oys- 
ters near  the  shores  of  Armenia,  Persia,  Susiana,  and 
Babylonia.  This  was  just  before  Alexander  the  Great 
crossed  the  Hellespont  with  his  magnificent  Macedonian 
army  and  won  his  triumphant  victories  in  Persia.  Then 
the  store  houses  and  treasures  of  Babylon  and  Susa  were 
opened  to  him.  It  is  also  recorded  that  pearls  were 
found  in  Egypt  and,  as  that  country  had  been  under 


29 


30  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

Persian  rule,  it  and  its  treasures  were  acquired  by  the 
great  Alexander. 

In  55  B.  C.  Julius  Caesar,  .with  his  mighty  Roman 
army,  invaded  Britain  and  in  his  conquest  secured  valu- 
able treasures  among  which  pearls  were  mentioned.  It 
is  also  known  that  Caesar  presented  a  pearl  of  great  value 
to  the  mother  of  Brutus  in  the  year  54  B.  C. 

The  famous  Cleopatra  was  born  in  the  year  69  B.  C., 
and  was  the  daughter  of  the  Egyptian  king  Ptolemy 
Auletes.  It  is  on  record  that  on  the  occasion  of  a  great 
feast  she  dissolved  a  pearl  of  fabulous  size  and  value 
in  wine  or  vinegar,  and  drank  it.  The  density  of  pearls 
and  the  value  of  vinegar  as  a  solvent,  however,  both 
tend  to  weaken  the  account,  and  the  reader  is  not  ex- 
pected to  believe  the  story. 

Claudia,  the  glutton,  is  said  to  have  also  consumed  a 
valuable  pearl  in  imitation  of  the  noted  Cleopatra.  The 
Bible  mentions  the  pearl  in  several  places.  The  Saviour 
enthroned  the  pearl  in  a  celestial  sheen,  when  (Matt.  13: 
45-46)  He  likened  the  kingdom  of  Heaven  unto  it.  In 
His  similitude,  the  pearl  was  crowned  with  the  highest 
compliment  of  all  ages.  He  was  the  greatest  of  all 
teachers  and  from  His  use  of  the  pearl  as  an  object  in 
the  lesson  we  observe  that  not  only  He  recognized  the 
great  worth  of  the  gem,  but  that-  his  audience  also  es- 
teemed it  highly  as  He  always  used  objects  that  were 
known  by  all. 

In  the  revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  in  the  twenty- 
first  verse  of  the  twenty-first  chapter  occurs  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  gates  of  Heaven : 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PEARL  31 

"And  the  twelve  gates  were  twelve  pearls,  each  one 
of  the  several  gates  was  of  one  pearl;  and  the  street  of 
the  city  was  pure  gold,  as  it  were  transparent  glass." 
The  use  of  pearls  in  describing  the  heavenly  gates,  shows 
the  sublime  and  sacred  respect  with  which  John  thought 
of  the  radiant  pearl. 

The  great  historian  Pliny,  who  was  born  in  Italy  in 
23  A.  D.,  mentioned  the  pearl  in  his  writings. 

In  37  A.  D.  the  wife  of  Caius  Caligula  possessed  a  col- 
lection of  pearls  valued  at  $3,000,000.00. 

From  the  earliest  history  pearls  were  found  in  Britain. 

From  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  to  Louis  XIII.  the  pearl 
was  prominent  in  France.  It  is  said  that  there  was  a  law 
in  France  about  1355  which  prohibited  the  goldsmiths  in 
Paris  from  setting  Scotch  pearls  with  the  oriental. 

Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  wore  pendant  pearls  in  her 
ears  when  she  went  to  chapel  and  possessed  a  magnificent 
rosary  of  pearls  which  were  greatly  coveted  by  other 
queens  at  that  time. 

Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  of  London,  was  a  wealthy  sub- 
ject and  is  said  to  have  ground  a  large  pearl  to  powder 
and  mixed  it  in  wine,  which  he  drank  to  the  health  of 
the  queen  to  show  a  prodigal  loyalty  to  her. 

At  the  time  of  Columbus,  Spain  and  other  European 
nations  considered  pearls  as  among  the  most  valuable 
jewels,  and  the  early  discoverers  were  required  to  give  a 
part  of  the  treasures  which  they  found  to  the  king. 

On  October  12,  1492,  when  the  valiant  hero  Columbus 
landed  at  San  Salvador  another  addition  was  made  to  the 
history  of  pearls.  The  natives  possessed  large  quanti- 


30  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

Persian  rule,  it  and  its  treasures  were  acquired  by  the 
great  Alexander. 

In  55  B.  C.  Julius  Caesar,  with  his  mighty  Roman 
army,  invaded  Britain  and  in  his  conquest  secured  valu- 
able treasures  among  which  pearls  were  mentioned.  It 
is  also  known  that  Caesar  presented  a  pearl  of  great  value 
to  the  mother  of  Brutus  in  the  year  54  B.  C. 

The  famous  Cleopatra  was  born  in  the  year  69  B.  C., 
and  was  the  daughter  of  the  Egyptian  king  Ptolemy 
Auletes.  It  is  on  record  that  on  the  occasion  of  a  great 
feast  she  dissolved  a  pearl  of  fabulous  size  and  value 
in  wine  or  vinegar,  and  drank  it.  The  density  of  pearls 
and  the  value  of  vinegar  as  a  solvent,  however,  both 
tend  to  weaken  the  account,  and  the  reader  is  not  ex- 
pected to  believe  the  story. 

Claudia,  the  glutton,  is  said  to  have  also  consumed  a 
valuable  pearl  in  imitation  of  the  noted  Cleopatra.  The 
Bible  mentions  the  pearl  in  several  places.  The  Saviour 
enthroned  the  pearl  in  a  celestial  sheen,  when  (Matt.  13: 
45-46)  He  likened  the  kingdom  of  Heaven  unto  it.  In 
His  similitude,  the  pearl  was  crowned  with  the  highest 
compliment  of  all  ages.  He  was  the  greatest  of  all 
teachers  and  from  His  use  of  the  pearl  as  an  object  in 
the  lesson  we  observe  that  not  only  He  recognized  the 
great  worth  of  the  gem,  but  that-  his  audience  also  es- 
teemed it  highly  as  He  always  used  objects  that  were 
known  by  all. 

In  the  revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  in  the  twenty- 
first  verse  of  the  twenty-first  chapter  occurs  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  gates  of  Heaven: 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PEARL  31 

"And  the  twelve  gates  were  twelve  pearls,  each  one 
of  the  several  gates  was  of  one  pearl;  and  the  street  of 
the  city  was  pure  gold,  as  it  were  transparent  glass." 
The  use  of  pearls  in  describing  the  heavenly  gates,  shows 
the  sublime  and  sacred  respect  with  which  John  thought 
of  the  radiant  pearl. 

The  great  historian  Pliny,  who  was  born  in  Italy  in 
23  A.  D.,  mentioned  the  pearl  in  his  writings. 

In  37  A.  D.  the  wife  of  Caius  Caligula  possessed  a  col- 
lection of  pearls  valued  at  $3,000,000.00. 

From  the  earliest  history  pearls  were  found  in  Britain. 

From  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  to  Louis  XIII.  the  pearl 
was  prominent  in  France.  It  is  said  that  there  was  a  law 
in  France  about  1355  which  prohibited  the  goldsmiths  in 
Paris  from  setting  Scotch  pearls  with  the  oriental. 

Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  wore  pendant  pearls  in  her 
ears  when  she  went  to  chapel  and  possessed  a  magnificent 
rosary  of  pearls  which  were  greatly  coveted  by  other 
queens  at  that  time. 

Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  of  London,  was  a  wealthy  sub- 
ject and  is  said  to  have  ground  a  large  pearl  to  powder 
and  mixed  it  in  wine,  which  he  drank  to  the  health  of 
the  queen  to  show  a  prodigal  loyalty  to  her. 

At  the  time  of  Columbus,  Spain  and  other  European 
nations  considered  pearls  as  among  the  most  valuable 
jewels,  and  the  early  discoverers  were  required  to  give  a 
part  of  the  treasures  which  they  found  to  the  king. 

On  October  12,  1492,  when  the  valiant  hero  Columbus 
landed  at  San  Salvador  another  addition  was  made  to  the 
history  of  pearls.  The  natives  possessed  large  quanti- 


:cxl2 

H.   M.  QUEEN  ALEXANDRA 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PEARL  33 

ties  of  these  gems,  which  were  probably  from  the  pearl 
oyster. 

In  a  letter  to  Pier  Soderini,  Amerigo  Vespucci  related 
the  account  of  his  first  voyage  and  mentioned  that  the 
Indians  did  not  realize  the  worth  of  their  gold,  jewels, 
pearls  and  other  riches,  and  were  liberal  with  their 
gifts. 

In  the  year  1499  Sebastian  Cabot  made  his  third  trip 
to  America,  visiting  the  lands  bordering  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  He  also  found  the  Indians  with  large  quanti- 
ties of  pearls. 

Pamfilo  de  Narvaez,  in  1501,  found  pearls  in  Santo 
Domingo,  and  later  found  them  on  the  American  conti- 
nent. 

In  1512  the  aged  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  came  to  Florida 
and  found  pearls  among  the  natives. 

When  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  crossed  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  in  1513,  he  found  the  Indians  along  the  shore  of 
what  is  now  the  Bay  of  Panama  taking  pearls  from  oys- 
ters which  had  been  washed  ashore  during  storms  and 
also  diving  for  them  near  the  shore. 

In  1526  Hernando  Cortez  discovered  Lower  California, 
where  he  found  the  natives  wearing  lustrous  pearls,  gath- 
ered from  the  Gulf  of  Lower  California.  History  also 
relates  that  when  Montezuma,  the  Emperor  of  Mexico, 
stepped  from  his  royal  palanquin,  "blazing  with  bur- 
nished gold  and  overshadowed  by  a  canopy  of  gaudy 
feather  work  powdered  with  jewels  and  fringed  with  sil- 
ver," to  grant  audience  to  Cortez,  his  cloak  and  golden 


36  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

quantities  of  pearls  for  adornment  long  before  Columbus 
arrived.  It  is  probable  that  they  occupied  the  Scioto  and 
Miami  Valleys  about  1200  A.  D.  These  mound  builders 
have  left  a  complete  proof  that  they  had  a  high  regard 
for  the  fresh-water  pearls  of  our  rivers.  The  many 
mounds  in  Ohio  have  been  explored  and  the  archae- 
ologists have  found  great  stores  of  pearls.  One  of  the 
greatest  "finds"  was  made  in  the  effigy  of  the  Hopewell 
group,  where  more  than  a  gallon  of  pearls  were  found 
with  two  skeletons.  Some  of  these  pearls  were  two- 
thirds  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  were  usually  placed 
around  the  neck,  the  wrists,  and  the  ankles,  and  were 
often  sewed  on  the  garments.  All  the  pearls  had  been 
drilled  with  a  heated  copper  wire.  They  were  also  in- 
jured by  lying  in  the  graves. 

Important  "finds"  were  also  made  in  the  Turner  group 
and  the  Porter  mounds.  The  conditions  were  found  to 
be  similar  to  the  Hopewell  group. 

Many  pearls  were  found  set  in  bear's  teeth.  No  hinge 
pearls  were  found. 

It  is  probable  that  the  use  of  pearls  was  confined  to  a 
few  individuals. 

Appearances  indicate  that  the  mound  builders  had 
reached  an  advanced  state  of  refinement. 

Since  the  discovery  of  America,  pearls  have  been  found 
in  the  waters  of  other  countries  in  fisheries  that  have 
been  established  for  many  hundreds  of  years  and  in  some 
that  have  been  found  later.  Among  the  oldest  of  these 
are  the  Indian,  Ceylon,  the  Red  Sea,  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  Arabian  Sea, 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PEARL  37 

The  Ceylon  fishery  is  the  best  known  and  produces  a 
large  amount  of  pearls.  This  fishery  has  been  deserted 
many  times  for  the  reason  that  the  oysters  were  said  to 
have  been  gathered  from  the  beds,  but  after  a  few  years 
the  work  of  fishing  for  the  oysters  would  begin  again  and 
it  is  probable  that  pearls  will  come  from  Ceylon  as  long 
as  there  is  a  demand  for  the  gems. 

The  noted  French  jeweler  Tavernier  should  be  men- 
tioned. He  was  born  in  Paris  in  1605  and  was  the  son 
of  a  Flemish  engraver.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  accom- 
panied some  French  noblemen  in  a  visit  to  eastern  lands. 
Later  he  traveled  through  all  the  important  countries  and 
always  went  as  dealer  in  pearls  and  other  gems.  On  one 
occasion  he  returned  from  the  Arabian  Sea  with  $500,- 
ooo.oo  worth  of  pearls.  This  event  is  said  to  have  been 
the -cause  of  the  great  popularity  of  pearls  in  France.  He 
also  sold  some  very  valuable  pearls  to  the  Shah  of 
Persia,  and  to  other  great  rulers. 

A  recent  ruler  of  India,  the  Rajah  of  Dholpur,  pos- 
sessed a  collection  of  pearls  valued  at  $7,500,000.00. 
Many  of  the  important  historical  facts  concerning  the 
pearl  are  included  in  this  chapter,  but  in  closing,  it  is  well 
to  observe  that  the>pearl  has  exerted  a  great  influence  in 
extending  boundary  lines  and  in  the  advancement  of  civi- 
lization. 

In  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Macedonia 
gained  a  large  area  and  increased  its  treasures.  It  is  said 
that  the  treasures,  among  which  the  pearl  was  promi- 
nent, had  something  to  do  with  the  great  conquests.  We 
should  also  observe  that  Alexander  the  Great  taught  Eu- 


38  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

ropeans  the  road  to  India  and  gave  them  their  first 
glimpse  of  that  great  treasure  land. 

Caesar's  conquests  in  Britain  were  also  partly  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  the  fresh-water  pearls  of  that  coun- 
try and  he  returned  with  many  of  these  precious  gems. 

All  the  early  Spanish,  French  and  English  discoverers 
who  came  to  America  expected  pearls  and  found  them. 
In  many  cases  there  was  an  understanding  that  they  were 
to  be  divided  between  the  adventurerers  and  the  king. 
So  in  these  instances  also  the  pearl  has  exerted  a  geo- 
graphic and  refining  influence  in  our  own  country  and  in 
the  other  lands  near  us. 

The  "Pearl  of  Great  Price"  has  occupied  such  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  lives  of  men  and  their  achieve- 
ments, that  if  we  had  no  historical  records,  except  the 
ones  that  registered  the  events  of  the  lives  of  those  who 
prized  the  pearl  we  should  still  have  a  very  elaborate 
history  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

PEARLS  ARE  FOUND  IN   MOST  RIVERS  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  AND  CANADA. 

PEARLS  are  found  in  nearly  all  of  the  rivers  in 
the  United  States  as  well  in  many  streams  in 
Canada.  There  is  no  certain  portion  of  our  coun- 
try that  might  be  referred  to  as  being  our  only  source  of 
pearls.  While  more  pearls  have  been  found  in  some 
rivers  than  in  others,  most  of  our  rivers  contain  them 
and  there  are  but  few  rivers  in  the  United  States  that 
have  hot  yielded  these  brilliant  gems. 

Eighty-five  per  cent,  of  our  United  States  streams, 
however,  are  in  the  mighty  Mississippi  drainage  system. 
The  streams  of  this  system  drain  a  large  area  of  land. 
Lake  Chautauqua,  in  New  York ;  Lake  Itaska,  in  Minne- 
sota, and  Yellowstone  Lake,  in  the  Yelk  >tone  Park, 
in  far  away  Wyoming,  belong  to  this  system.  A  thou- 
sand streams,  from  the  babbling  brook  up  to  the  mighty 
Missouri,  all  pour  their  tribute  of  water  into  the  great 
Mississippi.  Altogether  these  connect  thirty-four  States 
and  reach  into  Alberta,  Canada. 

Pearls  have  been  found  in  streams  in  nearly  all  of  the 
States  that  are  in  this  great  system. 

Most  of  the  rivers  which  empty  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  from  the  north  have  yielded  pearls. 


39 


4O  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

These  gems  are  found  in  the  rivers  which  empty  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  are  also  found  in  the  rivers  that 
empty  into  the  Great  Lakes  and  St.  Lawrence  River. 

Few  pearls  have  been  taken  from  the  rivers  that 
empty  into  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

It  is  impossible  to  supply  exact  infoimation  in  regard 
to  all  or  even  a  small  part  of  the  pearls  that  have  been 
found.  In  referring  to  the  pearls  from  various  rivers, 
we  shall  consider  the  States  in  which  pearls  have  been 
found,  taking  the  States  separately  in  alphabetical  order. 

There  has  been  some  pearl  hunting  done  in  Alabama. 
Some  fine  round  white  and  rose  colored  pearls  were 
found  in  the  Tennessee  River.  A  letter  from  Demo- 
pblis  states  that  some  pearl  hunting  has  been  done  near 
that  city.  The  men  worked  while  the  river  was  low  and 
used  the  crow-foot  dredge  and  tongs.  Some  small  but 
very  pretty  pearls  were  found  there. 

Arkansas  has  been  one  of  the  most  prominent  pearl 
States.  The  first  "pearl  fever"  was  in  1897  and  ex- 
tended into  Indian  Territory,  Missouri,  Georgia,  and  a 
part  of  Tennessee.  Pearls  were  found  in  White,  Black, 
St.  Francis,  Cache,  Ouachita,  Saline  and  Dorcheat 
Rivers;  also  in  Murphy  and  Walker  Lakes.  Some  of 
the  "finds"  were  very  valuable.  Many  of  the  pearls 
from  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State  were  pink. 

One  peculiar  feature  of  the  first  experiences  in  the 
pearl  fisheries  of  Arkansas  was  that  many  of  the  pearls 
found  were  not  taken  from  the  shells,  but  were  found 
loose  and  alone  on  the  ground  near  the  shores  of  the 
rivers  after  the  floods.  There  was  a  -local  belief  that 


WHERE  PEARLS  ARE  FOUND  41 

mussels  "shed"  the  pearls.  The  exact  cause  of  these 
peculiar  circumstances  is  not  really  known  and  such  con- 
ditions have  not  been  reported  from  the  pearl  fisheries 
of  other  States. 

Arkansas  has  been  thoroughly  worked  and  shells  are 
scarce  as  compared  with  earlier  times.  Mr.  George  S. 
Glass,  of  Peoria,  Illinois,  who  took  his  outfit  to  Arkan- 
sas last  summer,  said  that  300  pounds  of  shells  per  day 
was  a  good  catch  now  in  the  locality  where  he  worked. 
Some  nice  pearls  are  still  found  there,  however.  A  let- 
ter from  Mr.  John  Risley,  of  Peel,  Arkansas,  dated  Feb- 
ruary 26th,  1913,  stated  that  he  found  a  6o-grain  pearl 
in  White  River  last  summer.  He  said  the  pearl  was  im- 
perfect and  he  sold  it  to  an  Arkansas  pearl  buyer  for 
$500.00.  Possibly  the  defect  was  a  very  serious  one. 
It  is  impossible  to  tell  the  value  of  a  pearl  without  seeing 
it,  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  he  got  all  the  pearl  was 
worth.  This  is  only  one  of  the  very  many  valuable 
"finds"  of  the  Arkansas  pearl  fisheries. 

All  things  considered,  Arkansas  has  been,  is  now  and 
will  probably  always  be  one  of  the  best  pearl  States. 

Connecticut  is  not  prominent  as  a  pearl  State,  although 
about  fifteen  years  ago  there  was  a  "pearl  fever"  near  the 
headwaters  of  the  Mystic  River,  where  a  few  pearls 
were  found. 

Florida  has  not  been  worked.  A  letter  from  Mr.  J. 
H.  Holmes,  a  large  dealer  in  marine  shells,  in  Clear- 
water,  Florida,  stated  that  he  did  not  know  of  any  pearl 
hunting  having  been  carried  on  in  that  State.  He  said 
the  Unios  there  were  small  and  there  were  no  beds  of 


42  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

them  in  the  rivers.  It  has  been  learned  from  other 
sources,  however,  that  the  Ocklocknee  River  has  yielded 
some  small  pearls.  History  records  that  the  Spaniards 
had  a  pearl  fishery  on  one  of  the  islands  in  Lake  Okee- 
chobee  in  early  times. 

Most  of  the  rivers  near  the  Gulf  Coast  are  very  diffi- 
cult to  work  because  of  brush,  snags  and  vegetation. 

The  mussels  are  sm.ill,  so  no  large  pearls  can  be  ex- 
pected from  them. 

Georgia  has  had  some  "pearl  fevers."  One  of  these 
was  in  1897  and  the  other  in  1911.  Some  nice  pearls 
were  found. 

At  the  time  De  Soto  was  in  Georgia,  the  Indians 
secured  some  pearls  for  him  from  the  Oostariula  River 
near  the  place  where  Rome,  Georgia,  now  stands. 

Illinois  is  especially  favored.  The  Mississippi  River 
on  the  west,  the  Wabash  River  on  the  east,  the  Ohio 
River  on  the  south,  and  the  Illinois,  Rock,  Kankakee 
Rivers  and  many  other  smaller  streams  inside  the  State 
make  it  the  most  prominent  pearl  State. 

No  other  State  has  produced  as  many  fine  pearls 
within  the  last  few  years  as  Illinois. 

Some  of  the  finest  fresh-water  pearls  in  the  world 
to-day  came  from  the  rivers  in  and  bordering  this  State. 

The  Illinois  River  is  the  most  important  pearl  stream 
in  the  State.  In  1910  there  were  2,600  boats  on  this 
river  engaged  in  pearl  hunting,  or  "claming,"  as  it  is 
called  in  many  places. 

In  1912  there  were  only  about  400  mussel  boats  in  use 
on  the  Illinois  River. 


LADY   HOWARD  DE  WALDEN 


44  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

The  new  dip  net  is  one  of  the  most  effective  and 
profitable  appliances. 

It  is  now  used  in  the  Peoria  district,  but  is  not  in  com- 
mon use  in  any  other  part  of  the  State,  or  other  States. 

It  will  probably  be  used  in  many  other  places  when  its 
merits  become  better  known  by  the  pearl  hunters. 

Shells  along  the  Illinois  River  are  usually  worth  $12.00 
to  $15.00  per  ton,  although  they  have  been  known  to 
reach  the  $20.00  mark. 

The  shells  from  the  Mississippi  River  are  better  for 
button  material  and  the  price  generally  ranges  from 
$23.00  to  $30.00  a  ton  at  the  Illinois  towns  near  the 
Iowa  button  factories. 

Where  shells  are  plentiful,  pearl  hunters  can  make 
good  wages  in  Illinois  by  gathering  the  shells. 

Indiana  has  a  good  record  as  a  pearl  State,  but  its 
rivers  have  been  so  thoroughly  worked  that  the  yield  of 
both  shells  and  pearls  is  much  less  than  it  was  a  few 
years  ago. 

The  Wabash  arid  Ohio  Rivers  and  other  smaller 
streams  have  produced  large  quantities  of  the  finest 
pearls  and  slugs.  The  shells  from  many  localities  are 
also  very  good.  Like  most  of  the  older  pearl  rivers,  the 
rivers  need  a  rest  in  many  places. 

Indiana  will  probably  always  be  one  of  our  best  pearl 
States. 

Indian  Territory  has  also  had  some  "pearl  fevers,'' 
during  which  some  very  beautiful  pearls  were  found  in 
Boggy  and  Kiamichi  Rivers. 

Iowa  is  one  of  the  oldest  pearl  States  and  has  the  dis- 


WHERE  PEARLS  ARE  FOUND  45 

tinction  of  being  very  prominent  in  the  button  manufac- 
turing business. 

Muscatine,  Burlington  and  Davenport  are  the  leading 
cities  in  the  button  business. 

This  State  has  some  great- advantages  for  the  pearl 
hunter,  or  "clammer,"  as  they  insist  upon  calling  a  shell 
digger  there.  The  great  Mississippi  and  the  smaller 
rivers  are  good  pearl  streams;  and  the  shells,  which  are 
mostly  niggerheads,  bring  a  good  price  in  the  neighbor- 
ing cities. 

The  people  of  the  State  of  Iowa  are  especially  progres- 
sive in  regard  to  the  study  of  the  mussel  supply.  Some 
of  them  have  formed  an  organization  for  the  protection 
and  artificial  propagation  of  fresh-water  mussels. 

The  United  States  Fisheries  Bureau  has  a  good  biolog- 
ical station  at  Fairport,  Iowa,  which  is  a  valuable  aid  in 
maintaining  the  mussel  supply. 

The  many  valuable  pearls  found  in  Iowa  places  it 
among  the  leading  pearl  States. 

Kansas  is  not  an  important  pearl  State,  although  some 
nice  lavender  pearls  have  been  found  there. 

Kentucky  is  known  to  have  yielded  some  pearls.  Some 
nice  ones  have  been  found  in  the  Cumberland  and  Little 
Rivers.  Two  men  reported  thata  Green  River  and  Barn 
River,  near  Metcalf  county,  have  very  large  mussels  in 
them.  It  is  possible  that  some  nice  pearls  may  be  found 
there. 

Louisiana  is  now  coming  to  the  front  as  a  pearl  State. 
Many  nice  pearls  have  been  found  in  the  northern  part 


46  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

of  the  State,  and  especially  in  Caddo  Lake,  which  ex- 
tends into  Texas. 

A  few  small  pearls  have  been  found  in  Massachu- 
setts. 

In  Michigan  a  large  number  of  pearls  were  said  to 
have  been  found  in  mussels  from  the  St.  Joseph  River, 
in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State. 

Some  pearls  have  been  found  in  Minnesota,  but  the 
number  is  very  limited.  This  State  will  probably  have  a 
much  better  record  later  as  the  conditions  there  are  ap- 
parently very  favorable  for  both  mussels  and  pearls. 

A  few  small  pearls  have  been  found  in  Mississippi. 

Missouri  has  several  rivers  in  which  pearls  have  been 
found. 

In  a  letter  from  Mr.  John  Regelman,  of  Potts,  Mis- 
souri, he  stated  that  a  man  found  a  pearl  worth  $200.00 
while  in  bathing  in  the  Gasconade  River.  Pearls  have 

New  Jersey  is  not  an  important  pearl  State,  although 
it  has  had  several  "pearl  fevers,"  the  most  important 
one  being  in  1857  when  the  famous  "Queen  pearl"  was 
found  near  Paterson. 

Although  New  York  is  not  a  prominent  pearl  State, 
some  nice  pearls  have  been  found  in  Frost  Brook  and 
Grass  River  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State. 

Ohio  should  be  mentioned  as  an  important  pearl  State. 
Many  pearls  have  been  found  in  the  Miami,  Scioto  and 
Ohio  Rivers.  The  ancient  mound  builders  used  large 
quantities  of  pearls  which  probably  came  from  the  Mi- 
ami and  Scioto  Rivers. 

Tennessee  has  a  fine  record  as  a  pearl  State.    Among 


WHERE  PEARLS  ARE  FOUND  47 

the  Rivers  in  which  pearls  have  been  found  are  the  Ten- 
nessee, Cumberland,  Caney  Fork,  Holston  and  Clinch. 
Also  on  the  Calf  killer,  Duck,  Elk  and  other  tributaries  of 
the  Cumberland  Tennessee  Rivers. 

The  famous  "sky-blue"  pearl  from  Caney  Fork  was 
sold  for  $950.00.  Another  round  pink  pearl  brought 
$650.00,  while  another  sold  for  $1,000.00.  Many  of  the 
pearls  from  the  rivers  in  Tennessee  are  of  fine  quality 
and  color. 

The  shells  in  many  of  the  streams  are  also  good.  The 
pioneer  button  manufacturer,  Mr.  J.  F.  Boepple,  who 
examined  the  shells  in  various  rivers  in  Tennessee,  made 
the  following  statement :  "The  Clinch  and  Holston  Riv- 
ers have  the  best  mussels  for  buttons  that  I  have  seen 
in  all  my  experience  in  the  button  business." 

Many  of  the  other  rivers  contain  good  button  material. 
There  are  some  localities,  though,  where  the  percentage 
of  small  and  colored  shells  is  too  high  to  consider  them 
as  button  material. 

Texas  is  now  an  important  pearl  State.  Pearls  have 
been  found  in  several  of  the  rivers,  but  Caddo  Lake,  in 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  State  has  produced  a  large 
number  of  nice  pearls  and  is  considered  one  of  the  best 
pearl  fisheries  in  the  United  States.  The  shells  there  are 
worthless.  The  pearls  are  not  so  large  as  the  ones  which 
are  found  in  the  northern  rivers,  but  there  are  more  of 
them,  while  many  are  perfect  and  very  lustrous.  They 
range  in  value  up  to  $500.00.  although  most  of  them  are 
of  less  value.  One  man  found  $2000.00  worth  of  pearls 
there  last  year.  It  is  reported  that  3,000  people  hunted 


48  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

for  pearls  in  Caddo  Lake  in  1912.  Many  of  these  were 
teachers,  clerks  and  others  on  a  vacation.  Only  a  part 
were  regular  pearl  hunters.  They  secured  the  mussels 
by  wading  in  and  picking  them  up. 

Virginia  and  West  Virginia  have  both  yielded  a  few 
fine  pearls. 

Wisconsin  is  another  of  our  best  pearl  States.  Most 
of  the  pearls  were  found  in  mussels  taken  from  the 
Sugar  River  and  other  streams  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  State  and  from  the  Mississippi  River.  The  first 
"pearl  fever"  was  in  1889  when  some  very  valuable 
pearls  were  found.  The  pearls  from  Wisconsin  were 
principally  purplish  red,  copper  red,  and  dark  pink,  al- 
though some  were  peacock  green  and  other  shades  of 
green. 

Canadian  rivers  also  contain  pearls.  A  fine  round  pink 
pearl  weighing  thirty  grains  was  found  near  St.  John, 
New  Brunswick.  Hunters  and  fishermen  have  also  found 
them  in  other  parts  of  Canada;  but  there  has  not  been 
much  pearl  hunting  done  in  that  part  of  the  continent. 

In  the  accounts  mentioned  it  will  be  observed  that 
pearls  are  found  in  many  rivers. 

Mussels  grow  in  practically  all  streams  in  which  fish 
may  be  found.  They  are  more  abundant  in  districts 
where  there  is  plenty  of  limestone.. 

Pearls  are  scarce  every  where.  While  many  rivers 
have  not  been  mentioned,  it  is  probable  that  many  con- 
tain both  mussels  and  pearls,  and  later  we  shall  learn  of 
many  important  pearl  streams  that  are  not  thought  of 
now. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  LIFE  OF  THE  UNIO. 

IT  has  often  been  said  that  one-half  of  the  world 
does  not  know  how  the  other  half  lives.  In  speak- 
ing of  mussels  this  is  especially  true. 

Although  the  author  had  done  considerable  pearl  hunt- 
ing he  did  not  have  a  good  knowledge  of  how  the  mus- 
sels lived  until  July  and  August,  1910,  when  he  began 
his  investigations  while  hunting  near  Port  Byron  and 
Rapids  City,  Illinois.  At  that  time  the  Mississippi  River 
was  lower  than  at  any  time  since  about  1865,  and  he 
and  many  other  men  waded  in  and  picked  up  the  mussels 
with  their  hands.  It  was  necessary  to  wear  heavy,  warm 
clothing  on  account  of  the  cool  water  and  winds.  Many 
times  the  pearl  hunters  were  in  the  water  up  to  their 
necks  for  quite  a  while.  By  this  method  of  getting 
shells,  a  person  had  an  opportunity  to  learn  just  how 
the  mussels  lived  in  their  colonies  on  the  bottom  of  their 
river. 

The  mussel  beds  are  nearly  always  in  places  where 
sand  and  gravel  and  rocks  predominate.  Large  rocks 
were  especially  plentiful  near  Rapids  City,  and  the  au- 
thor knows  just  how  unpleasant  it  is  to  be  wading  along 
and  strike  his  foot  or  shin  against  submerged  sharp  rocks. 
There  is  more  prose  than  poetry  in  that  kind  of  pearl 


49 


5o  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

hunting.  Mussel  beds  are  of  various  sizes.  Some  are 
several  miles  long,  while  the  length  of  others  may  not 
be  more  than  a  few  hundred  yards. 

In  young  colonies,  the  mussels  have  plenty  of  room, 
but  in  some  of  the  old  beds  like  those  mentioned,  the 
mussels  are  so  large  that  they  occupy  more  space  and  in 
many  instances  they  are  piled  on  top  of  each  other,  and 
a  small  area  will  contain  a  large  number  of  shells.  As 
many  as  sixty  mussels  of  various  sizes  have  been  taken 
from  an  area  of  one  square  foot  of  river  bottom. 

There  are  over  four  hundred  varieties  of  mussels  in 
the  United  States  streams,  but  of  this  large  number  there 
is  only  a  small  per  cent,  of  them  that  are  especially  com- 
mon in  most  of  our  rivers.  Some  thrive  best  in  swift, 
deep  water  and  have  heavy  strong  shells  and  large  hinges 
and  teeth  to  protect  against  injury  in  accident.  In  this 
class  the  quadrula  group  is  prominent. 

Some  mussels  prefer  to  live  in  quiet,  shallow  water. 
Their  shells  are  not  so  heavy  and  they  do  not  have  heavy 
hinges  like  the  quadrula.  Many  of  these  are  in  the 
Lampsilis  group. 

Illustration  No.  4  shows  the  interior  of  a  Quadrula 
heros,  or  "washboard."  In  the  living  mussel  the  shells 
are  joined  together  by  a  tough  ligament  which  acts  as  a 
spring  in  opening  the  shell  when  the  adductor  muscles  are 
cut.  In  front  of  the  ligament  on  the  outside  of  each 
shell  are  elevated  portions  called  the  beaks  or  umboes,  and 
are  the  oldest  part  of  the  shell.  The  heavy,  thick, 
rounded  e'nd  of  the  shell  is  the  front  or  anterior  part,  and 
is  always  ahead  when  the  mussel  is  moving.  The  thin 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  UNIO 


U 


Fig.   4.     Interior  view   of   Quadrula   heros,  or   "Wash-' 

board"    shell. 

U.,  Umboes,  or  Beak;  L.,  Ligament ;  B.  H.,  Back  Hinge; 

T.  H.,  Tooth  Hinge;  A.  A.  S.,  Anterior  Adductor 

Scar;    P.    A.    S.,    Posterior    Adductor    Scar; 

A.    E.,    Anterior    End;    P.    E.,    Posterior 

End;  P.  L.,  Pallial  Line;   S.,  Stains. 

end  of  the  shell  is  called  the  posterior  end.  The  teeth 
are  near  the  anterior  end  of  the  shell  and  are  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  the  shells  together  so  they  will  not 
become  misplaced  in  case  of  accident.  The  hinges  are 
for  the  same  purpose  as  the  teeth  and  are  rather  long, 
elevated,  nacreous  formations  at  the  top  of  the  shell  near 
the  ligament.  At  each  end  of  the  shell  there  are  rough 
scars  where  the  adductor  muscles  are  joined.  One  is 
called  the  anterior  adductor  scar  and  the  other  is  called 
the  posterior  adductor  scar.  The  pallial  line  is  the  name 
given  to  the  rather  distinct  and  slightly  indented  line  near 


52  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

the  border  of  the  shell.  In  the  living  mussel  the  mantle 
is  joined  to  this  line  and  to  the  muscles  at  the  upper  part 
of  the  shell. 

A  living  mussel  can  be  opened  by  inserting  a  thin 
knife  and  cutting  toward  the  hinge  at  both  ends. 

Illustration  No.  5  shows  a  Quadrula  heros,  or  "wash- 
board" mussel  exposed.  A  very  soft  thin  tissue  called 
the  mantle  covers  the  entire  inside  of  both  shells,  being 
joined  together  at  the  upper  part  of  the  shell,  and  is  fas- 
tened to  the  shell  at  the  pallial  line  and  to  muscles  in  the 
upper  part. 

The  edge  and  outside  of  the  mantle  produces  a  sort 
of  milky  liquid,  containing  carbonate  of  lime  and  animal 
matter,  which  builds  up  the  shell  by  thickening  it  from 
the  inside  and  by  adding  to  it  at  the  edge,  the  pearly 
nacre  near  it,  a  layer  of  vertical  prismatic  cells  outside 
this  and  over  all,  the  protecting  conchiolin  epidermis. 
Ordinarily  the  growth  of  the  shell  is  only  such  as  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  growing  animal  and  for  its  pro- 
tection. After  the  mussel  reaches  maturity,  the  shell 
ceases  to  grow,  excepting  in  some  varieties  which  con- 
tinue to  lay  on  nacre  only.  The  mantle  is  carried  be- 
tween the  locking  hinge  teeth  and  fills  the  space  between 
them  like  a  cushion.  In  the  illustration  the  mantle  is 
folded  back  to  show  other  parts  of  the  animal.  A  mass 
of  tough  white  muscular  fibers  will  be  found  at  each  end 
of  the  shell  on  the  inside  near  the  back.  These  are  the 
powerful  adductor  muscles  by  which  "the  animal  closes 
the  shell. 

The  muscles  allow  the  shell  to  open  but  a  short  dis- 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  UNIO 


53 


0/0 


Fig.   5.     Quadrula  heros,  or  "Washboard"  mussel  exposed. 

MA.,   mantle    folded   back  to   show   the   other   proportions;    M., 

mouth;   P.,  palpi;   R,   foot;  I.  G.,  inner  gill;   O.  G., 

outergill ;    B.,  branchial   opening. 

tance  so  that  the  teeth  always  lock,  and  the  mantle 
cushion  swells  when  they  are  open  and  keeps  them  from 
slipping.  Inside  of  the  mantle  and  hung  along  the  hinge 
line  is  a  sort  of  bag  which  contains  the  vital  organs.  It 
takes  up  a  large  space  in  the  shell  and  is  called  the  ab- 
dominal sac.  This  extends  below  and  in  front  into  a 
tough  muscular  organ  called  the  foot.  The  foot  is 
shaped  something  like  a  tongue  and  can  be  projected 
from  the  shell  and  worked  into  the  ground.  A  good  idea 
of  its  use  can  be  obtained  by  referring  to  Fig.  6,  which 
shows  a  Lampsilis  rectus,  or  black  sand-shell  mussel  plow- 


54  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

ing  its  way  through  the  mud  or  sand.  The  foot  holds 
the  mussel  up  while  it  is  feeding  and  is  used  to  move 
the  animal  from  one  place  to  another.  By  contracting 
and  expanding  the  foot  while  it  is  in  the  ground  the 
mussel  is  able  to  push  forward  and  plow  through  the 
bottom  of  the  river.  The  foot  also  holds  the  mussel  from 
being  swept  away  by  the  swift  water  in  many  cases.  Al- 
though the  shell  may  be  almost  closed,  the  foot  which  is 
expanded  in  the  ground  can  hold  so  tightly  that  a  great 
effort  is  required  to  lift  the  mussels. 

The  mouth  is  located  under  the  anterior  adductor 
muscle  and  opens  into  the  abdominal  sac.  It  is  carried 
through  the  intestinal  canal,  and  finally  empties  near  the 
posterior  addustor.  The  animal  has  a  sort  of  a  heart, 
surrounding  the  intestinal  canal,  which  beats  regularly. 

Mussels  have  gills,  or  branchae,  which  separate  the 
oxygen  from  the  water  and  answer  to  the  gills  of  the 
fishes  or  the  lungs  of  land  animals.  They  are  fastened 
to  the  mantle  and  the  top  of  the  abdominal  sac  in  some 
cases,  and  hang  down  between  the  two  on  both  sides  of 
the  sac  and  reach  from  the  posterior  end  of  the  shell 
almost  to  the  anterior  end.  They  are  very  delicate  and 
beautiful  and  are  of  vital  importance  to  the  mussel. 

The  palpi  are  just  in  front  of  them  on  both  sides  of 
the  abdominal  sac  and  under  the  mantle. 

This  pair  of  smaller,  triangular  flaps,  extending  be- 
hind are  constantly  in  motion  when  the  animal  is  feeding. 
In  the  posterior  part  of  the  mussel  the  mantle  shows  two 
small  openings,  one  above  the  other.  One  or  both  of 
these  is  fringed  and  may  be  seen  expanded  when  the 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  UNIO  55 

animal  is  feeding.  The  Branchial  and  Anal  openings  are 
expanded  and  the  palpi  flap  rapidly,  which  draws  the 
current  of  water  through  the  branchial  opening.  The 
water  goes  through  the  gills  and  aerates  the  blook,  then 
it  passes  into  the  mouth  and  through  the  intestinal  canal, 
carrying  in  various  microscopical  organisms  which  are 
filtere  from  the  water  and  constitute  the  food  of  the 
mussel,  and  the  water  passes  out  through  theanal  opening. 
The  mussel  also  separates  sufficient  lime  from  the  water 
to  form  its  shell. 

There  is  quite  a  difference  in  the  length  of  lives  of 
various  mussels.  Some  of  the  Quadula  group  probably 
require  ten  or  twelve  years  to  reach  maturity  and  then 
continue  to  live  for  many  years. 

Some  niggerheads  have  the  appearance  of  being  twen- 
ty-five years  old.  Some  of  the  Lampsilis  group  attain 
a  fair  size  in  four  or  five  years.  In  young  shells  of 
some  varities  such  as  the  Lampsilis  ventricosus,  or  pocket- 
book,  and  Lampsilis  anadontoides,  or  yellow  sand  shell, 
the  winter  rest  periods  are  very  plainly  marked.  In 
most  mussels,  however,  it  is  very  difficult  to  determine 
the  age. 

The  various  kinds  of  mussels  have  different  time, 
for  spawning.  Every  month  in  the  year  is  the  spawning 
season  of  some  variety.  After  ovulation  the  eggs  pass 
into  portions  of  the  mussel's  gills  which  are  termed  mar- 
supium.  These  serve  as  brood  pouches  for  the  retention 
and  maturity  of  embryos  and  glochidia  until  they  leave 
the  mussel.  When  the  embryos  have  remained  in  the 
marsupium  of  the  mussel  for  a  period  of  time  which 


PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 


Fig.   6.     Lampsilis  rectus,  or  "Black   Sand   Shell"  mussel  plow- 
ing through  the  sand  or  mud  at  the  bottom  of  a  river. 
A.,  anal  opening;  B.,  branchial  opening;  F.,  foot.     Arrows  indi- 
cate the  direction  in  which  the  mussel  is  moving;  also 
the    direction    of    the    river    current. 

varies  in  different  kinds  of  mussels,  they  gradually  pass 
into  the  water  and  are  then  called  glochidia. 

In  the  first  stages'  of  its  development,  the  mussel  lives 
as  a  parasite. 

At  the  time  of  spawning  the  young  glochidia  fall  to  the 
bottom  of  the  river  and  remain  in  a  helpless  condition 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  UNIO  •  57 

until  they  die  unless  they  are  fortunate  enough  to  become 
attached  to  a  fish  on  which  they  pass  through  post-em- 
bryonic development  as  parasites.  Multitudes  of  glochi- 
dia  die  by  not  being  attached  to  the  fishes.  In  most  cases 
they  attach  themselves  to  the  gills  of  fishes,  although 
they  also  attach  to  the  fins  and  tails  of  fishes.  There  are 
several  types  of  glochidia.  One  is  the  hooked  type 
which  is  provided  with  tiny  hooks,  which  clasp  the  fila- 
ments of  the  fishes'  gills  and  some  times  attach  to  the 
fins  or  tail. 

Another  kind  is  the  hookless  type  and  the  tiny  mussels 
cause  the  sharp  edges  of  the  shells  to  clasp  the  filaments 
of  the  gills  and  the  edges  of  the  fins  and  tail  in  about 
the  same  manner  that  the  hooked  type  becomes  attached. 

There  is  also  another  type  called  the  Proptera  or  ax- 
head  type.  The  shape  resembles  that  of  an  ax-head. 
This  glochidium  possesses  hooks,  but  differs  from  the 
other  hooked  variety.  It  has  four  hooks  which  close  to- 
ward each  other  and  hold  tightly  wherever  they  attach. 
They  seem  to  prefer  to  attach  to  the  filaments  of  the 
fishes  gills.  A  week  after  the  attachment,  the  wall  of  the 
cyst  becomes  somewhat  looser  and  later  the  valves  open 
occasionally  and  the  foot  is  extended  and  finally  breaks 
out  of  the  cyst  and  the  free  mussel  falls  to  the  bottom. 

It  is  said  that  if  these  tiny  mussels  fall  in  muddy 
places  they  perish,  while  if  they  fall  in  sand  and  gravel 
they  thrive  and  form  colonies  or  beds. 

Some  of  the  fishes  are  much  more  susceptible  to  in- 
fection than  others.  The  rock  bass  is  especially  suscepti- 
ble, and  according  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  2,000 


58  '  PEARLS  AND  .PEARLING 

to  2,500  glochidia  have  been  known  to  attach  them- 
selves to  the  gills  of  one  of  these  fish  in  forty  minutes. 

The  large  mouth  black  bass  is  also  well  suited  for  some 
glochidia.  From  500  to  1,000  glochidia  have  attached 
themselves  to  the  gills  of  a  black  bass  in  twenty  minutes. 
A  view  of  a  rock  bass  infected  with  glochidia  of  Lampslis 
ligamentinus  may  be  seen  in  Figure  7. 

Small  mouth  black  bass,  crappie,  yellow  perch,  roach 
and  blue  gill  sunfish  are  all  very  susceptible  to  infection 
with  glochidia,  and  the  parasites  generally  attach  to  the 
filaments  of  the  gills. 

The  German  carp  is  different.  The  glochidia  do  not 
attach  to  the  gills,  but  200  to  500  will  attach  to  the  fins 
in  about  forty  minutes.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  life 
of  the  mussel  is  not  only  a  very  interesting  one,  but  also 
one  that  is  in  almost  constant  danger.  The  many 
changes  that  must  be  wrought  throughout  its  life  and  the 
many  dangers  which  it  must  pass  through  tend  to  make 
the  life  of  a  mussel  a  life  of  chance,  and  we  wonder  how 
so  many  of  them  happen  to  reach  maturity. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
PERILS  AND  ENEMIES  OF  MUSSELS. 

THE   very   talented   naturalist,   Ernest   Thompson 
Seton,  has  written  many  stories  about  the  wild 
animals  of  America.    His  stories  are  very  inter- 
esting and  are  the  result  of  a  thorough  study  of  the  lives 
of  the  wild  animals.     It  has  been  said  that  this  famous 
naturalist   maintains   that  no   wild   animal   ever   dies   a 
natural  death.    There  have  been  many  instances  in  which 
wild  animals  were  killed  by  other  animals,  or  have  met 
their  death  through  some  other  disaster.     Possibly  the 
statement  is  true  in  all  instances. 

In  the  case  of  the  mussel  there  are  so  many  perils-  and 
enemies  that  the  theory  seems  to  apply  very  properly. 
As  soon  as  the  glochidia  leaves  the  shell  of  the  mollusk 
they  are  exposed  to  their  greatest  peril.  At  this  time 
millions  of  glochidia  perish  by  not  becoming  attached  as 
parasites  to  the  fishes.  Even  after  clasping  on  the  fila- 
ments of  the  gills  or  on  the  fins  of  the  fishes,  many  lose 
their  lives  before  the  parasitic  period  is  completed.  Some 
attach  themselves  to  a  fish  that  becomes  too  heavily  par- 
asitized, and  the  infection  is  so  great  that  the  fish  be- 
comes swollen  and  diseased  and  death  results,  while  the 
glochidia  also  lose  their  lives  as  a  consequence.  Others 
which  are  favorably  attached  to  the  gills  or  fins  of  a  fish 
become  brushed  off  or  torn  away.  During  this  parasitic 

60 


PERILS  AND  ENEMIES  OF  MUSSELS  61 

period,  the  glochidia  are  subjected  to  another  danger. 
When  fishermen  take  large  numbers  of  infected  fish  from 
the  water  they  destroy  many  millions  of  glochidia.  At 
the  end  of  the  parasitic  period,  the  tiny  mussels  fall  to 
the  bottom  of  the  river ;  those  which  fall  in  mud  are  said 
to  perish,  while  those  which  fall  on  sand  or  gravel  have 
a  chance  to  live.  The  small  mussels,  however,  are  con- 
stantly exposed  to  many  hazards  and  dangerous  enemies. 
When  they  reach  maturity  they  are  in  less  danger  as 
they  are  strongly  protected  by  their  heavy  shells.  Their 
powerful  adductor  can  hold  the  shells  firmly  closed  and 
they  are  thus  enabled  to  resist  the  attacks  of  many  ani- 
mals which  are  strong  enough  to  open  the  shells  of  small 
young  mussels. 

Probably  the  chief  natural  enemy  of  mussels  is  the 
muskrat.  These  animals  kill  large  numbers  of  them. 
They  usually  carry  them  to  the  bank,  where  they  open 
the  shells  and  eat  the  meats.  Muskrats  select  the  lady- 
finger,  pimple-back,  monkey-face,  or  pig-toe  varieties 
usually  and  always  take  the  younger  ones,  as  they  can 
open  them  more  easily.  Sometimes  the  bank  of  a  stream 
is  a  solid  network  of  muskrat  tracks  where  large  quanti- 
ties of  shells  are  gathered  by  them  and  left  empty  on  the 
shore. 

When  the  water  is  low,  hogs  do  very  much  damage  to 
the  mussel  beds.  They  not  only  eat  the  ones  that  are 
loose,  but  also  root  up  any  that  may  be  partially  buried. 
A  few  hogs  can  destroy  beds  covering  many  acres  in  a 
short  time.  They  eat  mussels  of  all  sizes,  as  they  are 
able  to  break  the  strongest  shells. 


62  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

Raccoons  are  very  destructive  in  some  localities.  They 
seem  to  prefer  the  small  mussels,  although  they  also  bring 
out  some  of  the  large  ones  and  if  they  cannot  open  them 
they  leave  them  to  die  in  the  sun  and  possibly  they  may 
eat  them  later  if  they  happen  to  find  them  again.  Other 
predacious  animals  that  have  been  known  to  destroy  the 
mussels  for  food  are  the  mink,  otter  and  bear. 

Snakes  also  kill  some  of  the  smallest  mussels.  The 
author  remembers  an  experience  in  Iowa  when  he  saw  a 
snake  try  to  kill  a  large  mussel.  The  water  was  shallow 
on  the  rocks  so  it  was  easy  for  the  snake  to  find  the 
mussel.  The  reptile  bit  into  the  body  of  the  mussel  while 
the  shells  were  opened  and  immediately  the  mussel  closed 
its  shells.  It  was  a  very  strange  battle.  The  snake 
writhed  and  twisted  about  blindly,  often  letting  the  mus- 
sel fall  upon  the  rocks,  while  the  mussel  held  tightly  to 
its  enemy.  Soon  they  disappeared  into  deep  water  and 
the  result  of  the  battle  is  not  known.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  both  lost  their  lives  in  the  strange  battle. 

Catfish,  crawfish,  and  mud  turtles  are  also  said  to  de- 
stroy mussels,  but  the  extent  of  their  damage  is  never 
known. 

Cattle  and  horses  often  trample  Over  beds  in  shallow 
water  and  kill  large  numbers  cvf  mussels.  Aquatic  birds 
kill  and  devour  many  of  the  smallest  mussels  and  those 
having  very  thin  shells.  It  has  also  been  said  that  leeches 
and  other  parasites  injure  mussels,  especially  when  these 
parasites  are  very  numerous. 

There  are  some  physical  causes  of  destruction  that  are 
very  disastrous. 


PERILS  AND  ENEMIES  OF  MUSSELS  63 

Among  these  the  freshets  are  very  prominent.  Dur- 
ing the  freshets,  entire  beds  of  mussels  sometimes  become 
mudded  over  or  covered  with  gravel  or  sand.  Sometimes 
the  erosion  of  the  water  causes  large  banks  of  earth  to 
fall  into  the  stream  and  cover  the  mussel  beds.  In  other 
cases,  the  channel  of  the  stream  may  be  entirely  changed 
leaving  large  areas  of  mussels  exposed  to  the  air  and 
sun.  Droughts  are  very  disastrous  in  many  instances,  as 
the  mussels,  being  nearly  uncovered,  are  devoured  by 
hogs,  or,  being  entirely  uncovered  are  exposed  to  the  air 
and  sun,  so  death  results. 

Another  cause  of  injury  is  drift  ice,  which  sometimes 
plows  into  the  mussel  beds  and  crushes  the  mussels.  It 
is  probable,  however,  that  this  is  not  a  very  destructive 
agent. 

In  some  States  the  logging  industry  is  a  great  menace 
to  mussels.  The  large  number  of  logs  which  pass  down 
the  rivers  make  it  practically  impossible  for  the  mussels 
to  live. 

Water  pollution  is  one  of  the  worst  causes  of  destruc- 
tion. This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  Illinois  River.  The  Chicago  drainage  canal  has  a 
very  bad  effect  for  many  miles.  The  dissolved  ox*ygen  is 
drawn  from  the  water  by  the  organic  matter  in  the  sew- 
age and  mussels  cannot  live  in  it,  especially  during  warm 
weather. 

The  refuse  from  factories  which  is  turned  into  the 
rivers  destroys  the  mussels.  Along  the  Potomac  and 
Shenandoah  Rivers,  and  near  Harper's  Ferry  are  a  num- 
ber of  mills  which  grind  wood  into  pulp  for  making 


64  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

paper.  The  sawdust  and  waste  is  thrown  into  the  streams 
and  farther  down  where  the  water  is  rather  quiet,  the 
impure  refuse  settles  to  the  bottom  and  is  very  destruc- 
tive to  the  mussels. 

In  some  of  the  streams  of  the  Southern  States  the 
water  contains  a  large  amount  of  carbonic  acid,  which  is 
very  injurious  to  the  mussels.  It  is  very  probable  that 
the  conchiolin  epidermis  is  developed  to  protect  the  shell 
from  the  effects  of  acids.  Where  the  epidermis  is  badly 
worn  or  broken  off,  as  is  often  the  case  at  the  umboes 
or  beaks  of  the  shells  of  old  mussels,  the  acid  has  an 
opportunity  to  eat  into  the  shell  and  sometimes  eats 
through  the  heavy  portion  of  the  shell  and  causes  the 
death  of  the  animal. 

Another  thing  that  is  detrimental  to  mussels  is  the  cus- 
tom of  cutting  timber  for  various  economic  uses.  While 
the  timber  remains  standing,  the  water  does  not  leave  the 
soil  rapidly  and  the  brooks  and  creeks  have  many  deep 
places  where  there  is  always  plenty  of  water  and  the 
mussels  thrive  in  such  places.  After  the  timber  is  cut, 
the  rain  water  runs  off  rapidly  and  the  streams  become 
so  dry  that  mussels  cannot  live  in  them. 

The*  most  dangerous  enemy  of  the  mussel  has  been 
man.  His  increasing  activities  in  gathering  shells  and  in 
pearl  hunting  have  so  depleted  many  rivers  that  it  will 
require  considerable  time  to  replace  the  loss.  Although 
man  has  been  the  enemy  of 'the  mussels,  he  is  now  becom- 
ing their  friend,  for  he  is  learning  and  using  methods 
which  greatly  assist  in  preserving  their  lives  and  increas- 
ing their  numbers. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE  NEED  OF  LAWS  FOR  THE  BENEFIT  OF  PEARL 
HUNTERS. 

PEARL  hunting  is  an  important  industry.  During 
its  history  it  has  grown  from  a  few  temporary 
"pearl  fevers"  to  a  well  established  business. 
Every  home  from  the  log  cabin  to  the  king's  palace  con- 
tains something  which  is  the  result  of  the  efforts  of  pearl' 
hunters. 

The  valuable  pearl  jewels,  buttons  for  clothing,  um- 
brella handles,  knife  handles,  hat  pins,  penholders,  and 
a  hundred  other  articles  in  common  use  can  all  be  traced 
back  to  the  efforts  of  pearl  hunters.  The  occupation  is 
an  honorable  and  necessary  one.  There  are  many  of  our 
best  citizens  engaged  in  this  profession.  Some  of  them 
follow  the  business  of  pearl  hunting  during  the  entire 
year,  working  in  the  northern  streams  in  the  summer 
and  in  the  southern  streams  in  the  winter.  Others  hunt 
pearls  in  the  summer  and  cut  blanks  in  the  button  fac- 
tories in  the  winter.  The  great  value  of  this  industry  to 
our  commonwealth  is  now  recognized. 

The  pearl  hunter's  life  is  a  strenuous  one.  The  work 
calls  for  great  endurance  and  patience,  and  often  the 
life  of  the  pearl  hunter  is  subjected  to  dangers  in  swift 
rivers,  which  other  men  would  wish  to  avoid.  The  rush- 


66  PEARLS   AND   PEARLING 

ing  water  has  no  terror  for  him  and  he  can  be  found  in 
all  kinds  of  weather  gathering  shells  and  hunting  for 
pearls. 

Laws  are  very  helpful  to  other  industries,  and  the  time 
has  arrived  when  the  pearl  hunting  business,  like  other 
great  industries,  needs  protection.  In  making  laws  for 
the  benefit  of  this  industry,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
legislators  will  not  think  it  is  necessary  for  a  person  to 
purchase  a  license  before  entering  upon  this  work.  Xo 
man  should  have  to  buy  the  right  to  make  an  honest 
living.  The  pearl  hunters  have  plenty  of  expenses  with- 
out requiring  the  payment  of  ready  cash  for  a  license. 

The  sewage  of  the  cities  which  is  emptied  into  rivers 
is  a  very  common  cause  of  destruction  to  both  mussels 
and  fishes.  The  damage  to  aquatic  life  in  the  IMinois 
River,  near  Chicago,  is  an  example  of  this  great  evil. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  cities  to  dispose  of  the  sewage, 
but  on  account  of  the  great  damage  done  the  cities  should 
be  required  to  pay  a  large  license  annually  for  the  privi- 
lege of  emptying  the  sewage  and  this  revenue  should  be 
used  by  the  States  for  the  purpose  of  perpetuating  the 
supply  of  mussels  and  fishes  in  other  localities. 

Laws  should  be  enacted  prohibiting  factories  from 
emptying  refuse  into  the  streams  near  them.  Nearly  all 
kinds  of  factories,  from  a  small  cider  mill  to  a  large 
chemical  laboratory,  when  located  near  a  river,  find  it 
convenient  to  empty  refuse,  acids  and  all  kinds  of  filth 
into  the  water.  As  this  pollution  is  the  cause  of  death  to 
mussels  and  fishes,  the  companies  should  be  required  to 
stop  befouling  the  water  or  be  made  to  pay  fines,  and  the 


LAWS  FOR  PEARL  HUNTERS  67 

income  from  fines  should  be  used  in  the  work  of  maintain- 
ing the  mussel  and  fish  supply,  where  it  is  most  needed 
by  the  State. 

As  hogs  are  very  destructive  to  whole  beds  of  unios, 
the  owners  should  be  required  by  law  to  keep  the  animals 
out  of  the  rivers  during  times  of  low  water.  In  cases 
where  the  law  would  be  disregarded  and  the  mussel  beds 
damaged,  the  owner  should  be  fined  about  $3.00  for  every 
hog.  This  would  have  a  good  effect. 

Legislation  that  will  reduce  the  freight  rates  on  cars 
of  shells  is  needed  very  much  in  some  localities.  There 
is  often  considerable  expense  in  moving  shells  to  a  rail- 
way station,  but  it  can  be  clone  if  the  railroad  com- 
panies' charges  are  favorable.  But  when  the  freight  rate 
is  high  they  cannot  be  moved.  This  difficulty  is  usually 
found  in  localities  that  are  a  long  distance  from  the  fac- 
tories. As  an  example  of  the  high  prices  charged  by 
railroads,  one  case  is  mentioned  here.  Last  year  a  rail- 
road company  charged  $200.00  for  hauling  a  car  of  shells 
from  Central  Minnesota  to  the  nearest  button  factory.  A 
car  usually  contains  about  forty  tons,  so  the  rate  was 
about  $5.00  per  ton.  This  amount  is  about  one-half  the 
value  of  the  shells  in  some  instances. 

A  high  tariff  placed  on  shells  and  all  imported  articles 
that  are  made  of  mother  of  pearl  would  raise  the  price 
of  shells  throughout  the  United  States.  There  should 
also  be  a  high  tariff  placed  on  pearls  and  pearl  jewelry, 
and  especially  on  the  culture  pearls  which  are  coming 
so  rapidly  from  Japan. 

There  is  another  thing  that  deserves  the  careful  atten- 


68  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

tion  of  the  lawmakers.  Fishermen  do  not  fully  under- 
stand the  unios  and  they  destroy  millions  of  mussels  an- 
nually by  killing  fish  that  are  infected  with  glochidia. 
There  should  be  a  law  prohibiting  fishermen  from  taking 
the  varieties  of  fish  that  are  the  most  susceptible  to  in- 
fection with  glochidia  at  any  time  during  the  spawning 
season  of  the  most  common  marketable  variety  of  mus- 
sel, and  also  during  the  entire  parasitic  period  of  the 
same  mussel  in  the  locality  where  the  fishermen  are  at 
work.  If  such  fish  are  taken,  they  should  be  returned  to 
the  water  immediately.  Some  States  have  made  laws 
relating  to  the  pearl  hunting  industry.  The  laws  provide 
a  few  months  a  year  as  a  closed  season,  during  which 
time  it  is  unlawful  to  fish  for  mussels.  As  far  as  the 
protection  of  the  mussels  are  concerned,  the  laws  are  not 
valuable  ones.  They  are  based  upon  the  theory  that  the 
mussels  are  spawning  during  the  months  that  are  named 
as  the  closed  season.  These  laws  were  made  by  men 
who  would  not  be  able  to  distinguish  between  a  "three- 
ridge"  and  a  "razor-back,"  to  say  nothing  of  the  spawn- 
ing season  or  the  parasitic  periods  of  the  different  com- 
mercial varieties  of  mussels.  Any  law  which  provides  a 
few  months  in  the  year  as  a  closed  season  is  a  failure. 
Every  month  in  the  year  is  the  spawning  season  of  some 
particular  variety  of  mussel.  If  there  is  really  to  be  a 
closed  season  at  all,  it  would  be  better  to  divide  a  river 
into  a  number  of  small  sections.  Then  leave  one  section 
open  to  the  pearl  hunters  and  close  the  other  parts  and 
restock  them  with  fish  infected  with  glochidia.  At  the 
end  of  a  year,  close  the  portion  of  the  river  that  has 


LAWS  FOR  PEARL  HUNTERS  69 

been  open  and  open  another  section  to  the  pearl  hunters 
for  a  year,  allowing  three  or  more  years  as  a  closed  sea- 
son for  the  sections  that  are  to  be  rested  and  restocked. 
The  duration  of  the  closed  seasons  would  necessarily 
depend  upon  the  kinds  of  marketable  mussels  that  are 
most  common  in  the  vicinity  and  the  time  required  for 
such  mussels  to  grow  to  marketable  size.  In  restocking 
streams,  the  States  should  select  a  vanety  of  unio  that 
will  thrive  and  mature  rapidly  in  the  locality,  and  that 
will  be  a  good  pearl  producer,  and  have  a  lustrous  white 
nacre  and  be  good  for  button  material  without  much 
waste.  In  this  method  of  restocking  streams  it  will  be 
necessary  to  consider  the  interests  of  the  pearl  hunters. 
Many  of  them  cannot  go  far  from  their  homes  without 
considerable  inconvenience  and  expense,  so  the  rivers 
should  be  divided  into  small  sections  in  order  to  allow 
pearl  hunters  to  work  near  their  homes  if  it  is  possible  to 
do  so.  In  order  to  maintain  this  kind  of  a  law,  the  States 
would  probably  need  special  mussel  boats  and  men  to  re- 
stock the  depleted  streams,  or  portions  of  streams  and  at- 
tend to  other  things  relating  to  the  work. 

In  addition  to  the  suggestions  regarding  the  laws,  there 
are  some  recommendations  that  might  properly  be  in 
order  here. 

It  seems  that  the  Government  should  encourage  mussel 
farming  and  pearl  culture.  There  may  be  some  who 
desire  to  raise  mussels  either  for  the  market  or  for  the 
pearls,  and  who  have  suitable  lakes,  ponds,  or  streams 
for  the  purpose.  To  such  people  the  States  should  sup- 
ply, free  of  all  charges,  fish  that  are  infected  with  glo- 


70  PEARLS   AND   PEARLING 

chklia  from  mussels  that  usually  thrive  in  such  lakes, 
ponds  or  streams.  By  using  this  plan,  many  more  bodies 
of  water  could  be  added  to  the  mussel  resources  of  our 
country. 

Perhaps  the  National  Government  or  some  of  the 
States  will  think  pearl  farming  is  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance to  justify  a  slight  expense  and  effort  in  investiga- 
tion and  experiment.  By  selecting  favorable  locations 
for  pearl  farming  in  various  rivers,  and  by  careful  scien- 
tific management,  it  is  probable  that  valuable  pearls  of 
many  fancy  colors  may  be  produced.  Such  an  investiga- 
tion would  require  a  number  of  years  as  it  would  be  nec- 
essary to  artificially  cultivate  various  kinds  of  mussels 
under  many  different  conditions,  and  would  also  probably 
involve  the  artificial  propagation  of  various  kinds  of  'par- 
asites that  have  been  known  to  furnish  the  nuclei  of 
pearls,  and  a  study  of  methods  of  infecting  the  mussels 
with  these  parasites  in  the  most  successful  manner. 

A  good  exhibit  of  valuable  culture  pearls  and  a  booklet 
describing  the  methods  used  in  the  artificial  production 
of  the  pearls  would  do  much  toward  stimulating  an  in- 
terest in  this  untilled  field  of  endeavor  which  should 
yield  a  large  profit  to  labor,  science  and  capitol. 

Another  thing  would  be  very  desirable.  There  is  a 
need  for  a  mussel  that  will  mature  quickly  and  that  will 
be  tender  and  suitable  for  food,  and  have  pearly  white 
shells  that  are  valuable  for  button  material  without  much 
waste,  and  that  is  a  good  pearl  producer. 

This  is  requiring  a  good  many  things  from  one  variety 
of  unio  and  possibly  such  a  variety  can  never  be  devel- 


FOR   PEARL   HUNTERS  71 

oped,  yet  the  various  conditions  of  the  business  require 
the  most  favorable  circumstances.  If  there  is  a  man 
who  is  a  sort  of  "mussel  Burbank,"  and  who  wants  a 
problem  to  solve,  he  can  try  to  cultivate  the  kind  of  mus- 
sel just  described.  Such  a  mussel  would  be  of  special 
value  to  pearl  hunters  and  an  advantage  to  all. 

The  importance  of  proper  legislation  and  a  general 
public  interest  in  the  pearl  hunting  industry  should  not 
be  under  estimated.  This  industry  yields  products  which 
are  sold  for  cash  and  often  when  men  cannot  get  employ- 
ment in  other  lines,  they  can  secure  a  good  living  for 
their  families  by  hunting  for  pearls.  The  men  should  be 
protected  in  their  work,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  leg- 
islation will  in  any  way  interfere  with  their  rights. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  UNIO  SHELLS. 

OF  the  hundreds  of  varieties  of  shells  in  the  United 
States,  there  are  only  a  few  which  provide  suit- 
able material  for  the  manufacture  of  buttons, 
and  at  the  same  time  are  plentiful  enough  to  be  depended 
upon  for  that  purpose. 

There  are  some  varieties  that  possess  a  beautiful  pearly 
white  nacre  and  are  especially  suited  to  the  needs  of  the 
button  makers,  but  these  shells  are  so  scarce  they  cannot 
be  secured  for  the  purpose. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  shells  that  are  very  common 
in  many  rivers  and  can  easily  be  secured  in  large  quanti- 
ties ;  yet  they  cannot  be  used  for  making  buttons  because 
they  are  colored. 

Other  varieties  are  very  common,  but  the  shells  are  too 
thin  for  this  use. 

Of  the  varieties  that  are  usually  considered  of  value 
there  are  instances  in  which  they  are  found  to  be  of 
little  or  no  value. 

A  variety  that  may  be  large  and  heavy  enough  in  one 
river  may  be  too  small  or  too  thin  to  cut  blanks  from  in 
another  stream.  Then,  again,  shells  that  are  valuable 
in  one  river  may  be  colored  pink  or  lavender  in  another 
stream,  and  the  color  would  render  them  worthless  as 


72 


Fig.  8.     The  Quadrula  heros,  or  "Washboard." 
Fig.  9.     The  Quadrula  ebena,  or  "Niggerhead." 


74  PEARLS   AND    PEARLING 

button  material.  Other  shells  that  are  good  material  for 
making  buttons  in  one  river  may  be  badly  stained  in  an- 
other place,  so  their  value  would  be  reduced. 

There  are  a  few  shells  that  can  usually  be  depended 
upon  in  nearly  all  rivers  in  which  they  are  found,  but 
they  are  not  all  found  in  all  rivers.  In  considering  the 
various  kinds  of  shells  that  are  of  value  commercially  it 
should  be  remembered  that  while  only  a  few  are  of  value 
for  economic  uses,  practically  all  varieties  are  pearl  bear- 
ing. 

In  some  rivers,  such  as  the  Shell  River  in  Minnesota, 
even  the  thin  shells  commonly  known  as  "paper  shells," 
or  "floaters,"  are  almost  thick  enough  to  cut  button 
blanks  from,  so  even  they  might  possibly  yield  some 
pearls.  As  a  rule  pearl  hunters  do  not  separate  the  .un- 
saleable shells  from  the  valuable  ones  until  after  they 
have  "cooked  out"  the  mussels.  In  this  way  they  secure 
all  or  most  of  the  pearls,  baroques  and  slugs  that  happen 
to  be  in  the  shells. 

Each  variety  of  mussels  has  a  special  scientific  name 
by  which  it  can  be  identified  in  all  instances.  Each 
variety  of  the  mussels  has  also  one  or  more  common 
names  in  various  localities,  but  the  different  localities 
often  have  different  common  names  for  the  same  mus- 
sel, so  the  common  names  can  not  always  be  depended 
upon  to  identify  any  particular  variety  of  mussel. 

For  this  reason  it  is  necessary  to  use  both  scientific  and 
common  names  in  mentioning  the  different  varieties. 

Fig.  8  shows  The  Quadrula  heros,  or  "washboard," 
and  is  about  one-third  natural  size.  This  is  found  in 


VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  UNIO  SHELLS  75 

many  rivers,  but  is  most  abundant  in  the  Illinois  River. 
Near  Peoria,  these  grow  to  be  very  large.  Some  of  them 
are  eight  inches  long  and  five  inches  wide.  At  Flor- 
ence and  Pearl,  Illinois,  they  are  about  five  or  six  inches 
long,  while  near  Grafton,  Illinois,  they  are  very  much 
smaller. 

In  the  upper  part  of  the  Illinois  River  these  shells  are 
often  stained  or  spotted,  but  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
river  they  are  not  so  badly  injured,  and  are  flatter  and 
have  a  better  luster. 

In  the  Cumberland  River,  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
the  "washboards"  are  common,  but  are  usually  badly 
stained  and  are  sold  there  as  a  second  grade. 

These  are  also  found  in  Wabash,  Mississippi  and  many 
other  rivers.  The  "washboards"  yield  many  of  our  finest 
pearls.  Those  which  are  found  in  the  washboards  are 
often  very  large  and  therefore  very  valuable,  if  they  are 
perfect  or  nearly  so. 

The  most  valuable  fresh-water  shell  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  buttons  is  The  Quadrula  cbena,  or  "niggerhead." 
This  shell  is  shown  in  Fig.  9  in  about  one-fourth  natural 
size.  This  shell  is  very  common  in  most  rivers,  and 
especially  in  the  Mississippi  River.  It  was  once  plentiful 
in  the  Illinois  River,  but  is  scarce  there  now.  It  is  a  fine 
shell  with  a  lustrous  white  nacre.  The  mussel  delights 
in  deep  waters  and  is  not  usually  found  near  the  head- 
waters of  rivers.  It  is  very  important  to  perpetuate  the 
supply  of  these  mussels,  yet  the  means  of  propagating 
them  have  not  been  found.  Pearls  which  are  found  in 
"niggerheads"  are  of  fine  luster  and  good  value. 


Fig.  10.     The  Lampsilis  rectus,  or  "Black  Sand  Shell." 
Fig.  11.     The  Lampsilis  anodontoides.  or  "Yellow  Sand 

Shell." 
Fig.   12.     The  Lampsilis  fallaciosus,  or  "Slough  Sand 

Shell." 


VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  UNIO  SHELLS  77 

In  Fig.  10  a  Lampsilis  rectus,  or  "black  sand  shell,"  is 
shown,  about  one-third  natural  size.  This  variety  is  scat- 
tered through  most  of  our  rivers,  but  is  not  especially 
plentiful  in  very  many  of  them.  It  is  usually  mixed 
among  other  shells  and  not  confined  to  colonies  like  some 
of  the  other  varieties.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  black 
sand  shell  is  very  much  in  its  favor,  but  too  often  this 
shell  is  colored  pink  or  purple.  When  the  nacre  is  white 
it  is  valuable  for  both  buttons  and  knife  handles.  Occa- 
sionally some  very  valuable  pearls  are  found  in  this  va- 
riety. 

The  Lampsilis  anodontoidcs,  or  "Slough  sand-shell," 
brings  the  highest  price  of  all  the  fresh-water  shells.  It 
is  usually  exported  to  be  used  in  making  novelties  and 
knife  handles.  This  shell  is  shown  in  Fig.  n,  in  about 
one-third  natural  size.  The  yellow  sand  shell  is  com- 
mon in  most  of  our  rivers  and  prefers  to  live  in  sandy 
places.  These  shells  are  nearly  always  white  and  have  a 
pearly  nacre.  When  pearls  are  found  in  them  they  also 
have  a  high  luster  and  good  value. 

The  Lampsilis  fallaciosus,  or  "slough  sand-shell,"  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  12,  one-third  natural  size.  It  lives  in 
slow  currents  near  muddy  banks.  This  shell  is  often 
loo  small  to  be  valuable,  although  the  larger  and  thicker 
ones  are  worth  as  much  as  the  "yellow  sand  shells." 
Some  of  the  shells  are  very  beautiful.  Pearls  are  found 
in  this  variety  some  times,  but  not  often. 

Fig.  13  shows  The  Quadrula  undulata,  or  "three  ridge," 
one-third  natural  size.  This  variety  is  very  .common  in 
the  Illinois  River,  and  other  deep  rivers.  It  is  a  good 


Fig.     13.      The    Quadrula    undulata,    or    "Three 

Ridge." 

Fig.  14.    The  Lampsilis  ligamcntinus,  or  "Mucket." 
Fig.    15.      The    Quadrula   pustulosa,   or    "Warty- 
back,"  or  "Pimple-back." 


VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  UNIO  SHELLS  79 

shell  for  use  as  button  material,  but  in  some  rivers  these 
are  not  so  valuable  on  account  of  the  great  depth  of 
the  ridges,  which  reduces  their  value  as  button  material. 

Another  variety  which  is  almost  like  tlie  "'three  ridge" 
is  The  Quadnda  plicata,  or  "blue  point."  These  two  va- 
rieties are  so  similar  that  some  do  not  realize  that  there 
is  a  difference  between  them.  The  "blue  point"  is  a  bet- 
ter shell  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  buttons,  as  it  is 
flatter  and  does  not  have  such  heavy  beaks.  It  is  com- 
mon in  most  places  where  the  "three  ridge"  is  found. 
Both  varieties  yield  pearls,  yet  the  pearl  hunters  expect 
more  nice  ones  from  the  "blue  points." 

The  Lampsilis  ligamentinus,  or  "mucket,"  or  "mougat," 
about  one-third  natural  size,  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  14.  In 
some  rivers  this  shell  is  nearly  equal  to  the  "niggerhead" 
for  use  in  the  making  of  buttons.  It  has  the  advantage 
of  being  plentiful  in  most  of  our  rivers.  In  some  places 
a  few  have  to  be  discarded  on  account  of  their  pink 
nacre,  but  the  shells  are  generally  white.  Being  rather 
flat,  smooth,  and  of  uniform  thickness,  this  shell  can  be 
worked  up  into  button  blanks  without  much  waste.  Prob- 
ably more  mnckets  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  but- 
tons than  any  other  variety.  This  variety  is  not  often 
found  in  lakes  or  small  streams,  but  is  the  most  common 
variety  in  rivers. 

This  species  can  be  easily  propagated.  The  glochidia 
fasten  themselves  quickly  to  bass,  perch  and  sunfishes. 
It  thrives  well  under  many  conditions  and  is  better  than 
any  other  species  for  restocking  rivers. 


8o  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

The  "mucket"  yields  many  slugs  and  baroques  and 
some  very  fine  pearls. 

The  Quadrula  pustulosa,  or  "warty-back,"  or  "pimple," 
is  shown  in  Fig.  15,  about  one-third  natural  size.  This 
shell  is  well  known  among  the  pearl  hunters.  It  is  found 
in  most  rivers,  but  not  often  found  in  lakes.  'This  is  a 
very  good  button  shell,  and  in  some  instances  is  consid- 
ered almost  as  good  as  the  "niggerhead."  The  nacre  is 
almost  always  white,  with  a  good  luster.  It  is  variable, 
sometimes  being  very  smooth  and  rather  flat,  while  in 
other"  streams  the  shells  are  very  rough  and  round  and 
consequently  of  less  value  as  button  material. 

Another  shell  which  is  very  similar  and  is  sometimes 
thought  to  be  the  same  shell  is  The  Quadrula  tuber  cu- 
lata,  or  "purple  warty  back."  This  variety  often  grows 
to  be  larger  than  The  Quadrula  pustulosa,  but  is  not -valu- 
able for  buttons  on  account  of  its  dull  purple  nacre.  It 
is  not  found  in  large  beds  like  some  varieties,  but  is  usu- 
ally mixed  with  other  shells.  This  variety  is  mentioned 
because  it  is  an  important  shell  in  the  pearl  hunting  in- 
dustry. The  "purple  warty-back"  is  the  most  liable  to 
infection,  by  distomids,  of  all  the  heavy  shelled  varieties. 
It  is  a  great  producer  of  slugs  and  baroques  and  is  very 
likely  to  produce  fine  pearls.  All  the  slugs,  baroques,  or 
pearls  found  in  this  variety  are  purple  and  dark  purple, 
corresponding  to  the  color  of  the  nacre  of  the  shells. 

The  Tritogonia  tuberculata  is  a  very  odd  shell.  It  is 
commonly  called  "deerhorn,"  or  "buck-horn,"  or  "pistol- 
grip,"  or  "fan-tail,"  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  16  about  one- 
third  natural  size.  The  ones  fqund  in  the  upper  portion 


Fig.   16.     The   Tritogonia  tubcrculata,  or  "Buck- 
horn,"   or   "Deerhorn." 
Fig.  17.    The  Quadrula  lachrymosa,  or  "Stranger," 

or  "Maple-leaf." 
Fig.    18.      The   Plagiola  securis,   or   "Butter-fly." 


82  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

of  the  Mississippi  River  are  usually  white,  with  a  pearly 
white  nacre,  and  are  excellent  material  for  making  but- 
tons and  knife  handles.  They  are  not  always  valuable, 
however,  for  in  some  rivers  in  Tennessee  these  are  pink 
and  in  some  Arkansas  streams  they  are  purple,  and  in 
some  of  the  rivers  in  Texas  they  are  a  deep  purple  color. 
The  "buck-horns"  do  not  usually  grow  in  colonies,  but 
are  distributed  among  other  shells.  Some  very  valuable 
pearls  are  occasionally  found  in  them. 

The  Quadrula  lachrymosa,  or  "stranger,"  or  "maple- 
leaf,"  is  illustrated  in  Fig  17,  about  one-third  natural 
size.  This  is  very  scarce  in  some  rivers,  and  is  not  usual- 
ly abundant  in  any  of  the  rivers.  It  is  similar  to  the 
"three-ridge."  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  buttons, 
but  the  irregular  surface  of  this  shell  slightly  reduces  its 
value  as  button  material.  These  also  produce  nice  pearls. 

The  Plagiola  securis,  or  "butterfly,"  is  a  very  pretty 
shell,  with  pearly  white  nacre.  This  shell  is  shown  in 
Fig.  18,  one-third  natural  size.  A  pair  of  these  shells 
open,  and  when  viewed  from  the  outside,  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  butterfly,  and  for  this  reason,  their  com- 
mon name  is  used  very  appropriately. 

This  variety  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  ones  for  mak- 
ing buttons.  In  some  rivers  the  "butterfly"  attains  a 
large  size.  It  is  not  abundant  in  most  rivers,  although 
there  are  some  places  where  it  is  quite  common.  Some 
very  lustrous  and  valuable  pearls  are  occasionally  found 
in  this  variety. 

The  Lampsilis  ventricosus,  or  "pocketbook,"  is  shown 
in  Fig.  19,  about  one-third  natural  size.  This  variety 


Fig.  19.     The  Lamp  si  Us  ventricosus,  or  "Pocket- 
book." 

Fig.  20.    The  Symphonota  complanata,  or  "Razor- 
back,"  or  "Hatchet-back." 


84  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

grows  sparingly  in  both  lakes  and  rivers,  and  is  known 
throughout  most  of  the  States.  In  some  instances  the 
shell  is  too  thin  for  button  material,  but  usually  it  is  a 
good  shell  for  the  purpose.  The  nacre  is  generally  white 
and  lustrous,  although  some  times  a  few  pink  ones  are 
found.  They  are  some  times  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
pocketbooks  and  novelties.  Slugs,  baroques  and  pearls 
are  occasionally  found  in  these  shells. 

The  Symphonota  complanata,  or  "razor-back,"  or 
"hatchet-back,"  or  "heel-splitter,"  or  "hackle-back,"  is 
shown  in  Fig.  20,  about  one-third  natural  size.  This  va- 
riety is  common  in  most  rivers,  but  is  not  a  valuable  shell, 
unless  it  is  thick  and  has  a  white  nacre.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, the  shells  are  thin  and  colored.  They  do  not  grow 
in  beds  by  themselves,  but  are  usually  scattered  among 
other  varieties  of  shells.  Pearls  are  not  often  found  in 
the  "razor-backs,"  but  when  they  are  found  in  these 
shells  they  are  very  brilliant  and  valuable. 

The  Quadrula  obllqua,  or  "pig-toe,"  is  shown  in  Fig. 
21,  one-third  natural  size.  This  shell  is  white,  with  a 
good  luster  and  is  a  good  shell  for  making  small  but- 
tons. It  is  a  very  common  variety  and  in  some  rivers  they 
are  very  plentiful.  Its  small  size  reduces  its  value  some- 
what as  a  button  shell.  Occasionally  nice  small  pearls 
are  found  in  the  "pig-toes." 

The  Quadrula  metanewa,  or  "monkey- face,"  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  22,  one-third  natural  size.  This  shell  also 
has  a  pearly  white  nacre,  but  is  small  and  for  that  reason 
is  not  quite  so  valuable  as  many  larger  shells.  It  has 


Fig.    21.      The    Quadrula    obliqua,    or    "Pigtoe." 
Fig.  22.     77ie  Quadrula  mctanevra,  or  "Monkey 

Face." 

Fig.  23.     The  Unio  gibbosus,  or  "Ladyfinger,"  or 
"Spectacle-case." 


86  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

about  the  same  value  as  the  "pig-toe"  shells.  Small 
pearls  are  some  times  found  in  the  "monkey  faces." 

The  Unio  gibbosus,  or  "lady-finger,"  or  "spectacle- 
case,"  is  shown  in  Fig.  23,  one-third  natural  size.  It  is 
usually  an  unsalable  shell  on  account  of  its  color.  It  is 
not  often  found  with  white  nacre,  but  in  such  cases  it  is 
usually  of  commercial  value.  They  are  very  widely  dis- 
tributed and  are  found  in  both  lakes  and  rivers,  and  are 
especially  plentiful  in  the  headwaters  of  the  rivers.  They 
are  some  times  infected  with  the  marginal  cyst  distomid, 
and  occasionally  contain  slugs,  baroques  and  pearls. 

There  are  some  other  shells  which  occasionally  are  of 
commercial  value,  but  the  ones  illustrated  and  described 
are  practically  all  of  the  valuable  fresh-water  shells  of 
the  United  States. 

If  the  present  styles  should  change,  and  a  demand  be 
created  for  colored  buttons,  then  the  colored  shells  would 
become  valuable.  It  is  not  likely,  however,  that  there  will 
be  a  change  from  the  present  styles  of  buttons. 

Amateur  pearl  hunters  should  remember  that  while 
some  varieties  of  shells  do  not  have  a  commercial  value, 
all  varieties  of  shells  occasionally  yield  pearls. 


CHAPTER    IX. 
VALUE  AND  USES  OF  SHELLS. 

TWENTY-FIVE  years  ago  the  shells  in  the  United 
States  did  not  have  a  commercial  value.  Such  a 
thing  as  a  button  made  from  a  shell  of  a  fresh- 
water mussel  was  unknown.  All  the  pearl  buttons  that 
were  used  here  then  were  imported.  About  that  time  a 
man  named  J.  F.  Boepple,  who  had  learned  the  trade  of 
button  making  and  who  was  then  making  buttons  at 
Otensia,  near  Hamburg,  Germany,  began  to  take  an  in- 
terest in  American  fresh-water  shells.  He  received  a 
small  box  of  them  and  was  so  successful  in  his  experi- 
ments with  them  that  he  sold  his  factory  there  within  a 
short  time  and  came  to  America  to  enter  the  button  busi- 
ness. In  1892  he  established  a  factory  in  Muscatine, 
Iowa,  and  was  the  first  to  manufacture  buttons  from  our 
Unio  shells. 

This  pioneer  in  the  button  business  had  the  advantage 
of  a  favorable  tariff  and  an  unlimited  supply  of  mussels 
in  the  rivers  near,  yet  the  first  venture  was  a  failure, 
financially.  Mr.  Boepple  was  an  expert  in  his  work,  yet 
he  seemed  to  lack  some  business  qualities  which  are  nec- 
essary to  succeed. 

This  founder  of  the  button  industry  was  later  con 
nected   with   the   Fairport  biological   station   and   in   his 

87 


88  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

service  for  the  Government,  devoted  his  time  to  the  work 
of  perpetuating  the  supply  of  the  fresh-water  mussels. 
His  vast  experience  and  special  talent  for  the  work  made 
him  one  of  the  most  valuable  men  in  that  department  of 
the  government  service. 

At  the  time  of  his  death  a  little  over  a  year  ago  at 
Davenport,  Iowa,  the  city  of  Muscatine,  Iowa,  paid  a 
special  tribute  to  the  pioneer  button  manufacturer  by  sus- 
pending all  business  and  industrial  activities  on  the  day 
of  the  funeral. 

.  The  people  who  are  connected  with  the  great  button 
industry  of  our  country  are  very  much  indebted  to  him 
for  the  interest  he  manifested  in  the  advancement  of  the 
pearl  button  business  in  the  United  States. 

The  manufacture  of  buttons  is  the  main  industry  in  a 
number  of  thriving  cities  along  the  Mississippi,  the  Illi- 
nois, the  Ohio,  the  Wabash  and  other  rivers. 

One  of  the  latest  census  reports  gives  an  idea  of  the 
importance  of  the  industry. 

It  shows  a  total  of  6,400  people  employed  in  the  button 
business.  The  total  wages  per  week  were  $69,000.00, 
and  the  total  wages  for  the  year  were  $3,450,000.00.  In 
one  year  25,200,000  gross  of  buttons  were  made,  the 
average  price  per  gross  being  21%  cents.  The  amount 
paid  for  shells  reached  a  high  figure.  The  amounts  of 
shells  shipped  from  the  various  rivers  were  as  follows : 
Wabash  River,  14,400  tons;  Ohio  River,  13,440  tons; 
Arkansas  River,  9,120  tons;  Mississippi  River,  8,640 
tons;  other  rivers,  2,400  tons;  making  a  total  of  48,000 
tons  from  all  the  rivers.  The  average  price  of  shells 


VALUE  AND  USES  OF  SHELLS  89 

from  the  Mississippi  River  was  $17.00  per  ton.  The 
average  price  per  ton  from  all  the  other  rivers  was 
$15.00.  The  total  value  of  the  shells  from  all  the 
rivers  was  $737,280.00.  Since  this  report  the  prices  of 
shells  from  the  Mississippi  River  have  averaged  $20.00 
per  ton,  while  the  average  prices  of  the  shells  of  other 
rivers  has  been  reduced. 

At  the  present  time,  April  10,  1913,  there  is  a  strong 
advance  at  Rapids  City,  Illinois,  on  the  Mississippi  River ; 
shells  are  now  worth  $28.00  per  ton.  The  price  of  shells 
at  Pearl,  Illinois,  is  $16.00  per  ton,  and  they  are  about 
the  same  price  at  Peoria,  Illinois. 

The  Illinois  River,  in  the  vicinity  of  Peoria,  has  been 
the  scene  of  great  activity  in  the  pearl  hunting  and  shell 
fishing  industries.  Many  fine  pearls  were  found  there 
last  year  and  about  one  hundred  cars  of  shells  were 
shipped  out  of  Peoria. 

Fig.  24  is  a  view  of  "Gatlin's  Landing,"  Peoria,  Illi- 
nois, showing  pearl  hunters,  cooking  vats,  shells,  etc.  The 
large  pile  of  shells  in  the  upper  lefthand  corner  of  the 
picture  belong  to  Mr.  Henry  Gatlin,  who  sold  them  for 
$1,500.00.  This  is  just  one  of  hundreds  of  such  land- 
ings to  be  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

In  addition  to  the  large  number  of  people  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  buttons  there  are  also  several  thou- 
sand pearl  hunters  or  "clammers."  The  amount  they 
receive  for  their  work  depends  upon  their  skill  and  in- 
dustry and  many  other  conditions ;  such  as  the  supply  of 
shells  in  the  water  where  they  work,  and  the  market 


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VALUE  AND  USES  OF  SHELLS  91 

value  of  the  shells  they  gather  and  the  weather,  and 
their  luck  in  finding  slugs,  baroques  and  pearls. 

There  is  quite  a  difference  in  the  values  of  shells.  In 
rivers  near  the  Iowa  markets,  the  freight  rate  is  lower 
than  in  the  more  remote  districts.  Some  rivers  have  fine 
shells,  but  are  too  far  away  from  the  market  to  be 
worked  profitably.  In  some  instances  this  difficulty  can 
be  overcome  by  building  a  barge  and  installing  machines 
for  cutting  blanks.  In  this  way  the  shells  are  worked 
up  into  blanks,  while  the  small  floating  blank  factory 
gradually  drifts  toward  a  favorable  shipping  point,  where 
the  blanks  are  shipped  to  the  nearest  button  finishing 
plant.  The  plan  is  a  good  one. 

It  is  important  to  know  just  what  the  button  manu- 
facturers need  for  button  material.  The  requirements 
are  a  white  shell  with  the  whiteness  uniform  throughout 
the  various  strata  of  the  shell ;  a  bright  pearly  nacre ;  a 
degree  of  toughness  that  will  allow  the  shell  to  be  worked 
up  without  cracking  or  splitting ;  and  a  size  and  shape 
and  smoothness  that  will  allow  the  shell  to  be  used  with- 
out much  waste. 

As  the  principal  use  of  shells  is  in  the  manufacture 
of  buttons,  a  brief  description  of  the  evolution  of  pearl 
buttons  will  probably  be  of  interest  to  pearl  hunters  and 
shell  gatherers. 

The  mussels  are  first  cooked  and  then  the  meat  is  re- 
moved. The  cleaned  shells  are  then  shipped  to  the  fac- 
tory and  stored  in  sheds.  They  are  then  sorted  into  dif- 
ferent sizes  and  soaked  in  water  from  three  to  six  days 


92  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

so  they  will  not  be  brittle.  They  are  worked  up  while 
wet,  otherwise  they  would  crumble.  The  first  machines 
used  are  the  blank  cutters,  which  are  hollow  cylinders 
of  steel  and  with  diameters  corresponding  to  the  sizes  of 
the  buttons.  One  end  of  the  cylinders  have  fine  teeth 
which  saw  out  the  blanks.  The  cylinders  are  adjusted  to 
the  lathes  in  which  they  revolve.  The  shells  are  held 
against  the  saws  with  pliers,  although  some  blank  cutters 
prefer  to  hold  the  shells  with  their  hands.  As  the  blanks 
are  cut  they  pass  back  through  the  saw  and  saw  holder 
and  drop  into  a  receiver. 

Fig.  25  shows  a  large  Quadrula  heros,  or  "washboard" 
shell,  from  which  five  large  button  blanks  have  been  cut. 
The  stains  on  this  shell  made  it  difficult  to  cut  more  of 
the  large  blanks,  but  some  material  could  have  been 
saved  by  cutting  some  smaller  blanks  from  it.  After  the 
blanks  are  cut  they  are  held  against  a  revolving  grinding 
wheel  to  remove  the  black  epidermis  and  to  make  the 
blank  smooth.  After  this  they  are  turned  and  the  but- 
tons are  given  their  proper  shape.  The  holes  are  then 
drilled  in  them  and  they  are  complete,  except  for  the 
polishing.  This  is  done  by  placing  the  buttons  loose  in 
large  tumblers  where  they  are  subjected  to  the  action  of 
a  chemical  fluid  and  mutual  contact  while  the  tumblers 
revolve.  They  are  then  washed  and  dried  and  sorted 
into  various  sizes  and  grades,  and  then  sewed  on  cards 
and  packed  into  cardboard  boxes  and  are  ready  for 
the  market.  Many  of  the  western  factories  just  cut  the 
blanks  and  send  them  to  eastern  factories,  where  they 
are  finished.  Some  of  the  western  companies,  however, 


VALUE  AND  USES  OF  SHELLS 


Fig.    25.     Large    Quadrula    heros,    or    "Washboard"    shell    from 
which   five   large   button   blanks   have   been  cut. 

are  well  provided  with  the  most  approved  finishing  ma- 
chines and  finish  their  buttons  in  their  own  factories. 

While  the  Unio  mussel  shells  are  used  mostly  for  but- 
tons, there  are  many  other  uses  for  them.  A  few  of  the 
articles  of  every  day  use  which  are  made  from  them  are 
as  follows  :  Buckles,  knife  handles,  umbrella  handles,  hat 
pins,  pistol  stocks,  penholders,  pocketbooks,  trolling 
spoons,  match  safes,  jewel  cases,  opera  glasses,  novelties 
and  souvenirs.  There  are  some  other  uses  which  require 
large  quantities  of  shells.  One  of  them  is  the  manufac- 
ture of  crushed  shell  for  poultry  food.  During  one  year 
30,726  tons  of  chicken  grits  were  made  from  the  waste 


94  PEARLS  -A^D.  PEARLING 

material  of  the  button  factories..  This  was  sold  for  $169,- 
ooo.oo,  or  at  the  rate  of  about  $5.50  per  ton. 

Another  common  use  for  shells  is  in  road  making.  It 
is  estimated  that  there  are  about  3,000  miles  of  roads  in 
the  eastern  States  that  have  been  surfaced  with  shells  of 
oysters  and  clams.  The  localities  which  use  shells  for 
this  purpose  are :  Connecticut,  Long  Island,  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Florida 
and  Louisiana.  The  shells  cost  three  cents  a  bushel  and 
to  cover  a  road  sixteen  feet  wide  to  a  depth  of  fifteen 
inches  in  the  middle,  and  eight  inches  on  the  sides  re- 
quires about  30,000  bushels  of  shells  per  mile,  making  an 
expense  of  $900.00  per  mile.  In  order  to  keep  the  road 
in  repair,  2,500  bushels  of  shells  are  required  annually 
at  a  cost  of  about  $75.00.  It  is  the  cheapest  road  material 
in  those  sections,  but  it  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  as  road 
material  on  account  of  the  rapid  wear  and  the  objection- 
able lime  dust.  The  shells  are  also  used  for  railroad  bal- 
last. They  are  not  so  durable  as  rock,  but  are  cheaper 
in  some  localities  and  answer  the  purpose  fairly  well. 

Shells  are  often  used  for  sidewalks,  and  are  well 
adapted  for  that  purpose. 

In  Colonial  times  shells  were  used  for  making  lime  and 
most  of  the  brick  buildings  that  were  built  then  were 
solidified  with  the  shell  lime.  It  was  not  very  satisfac- 
tory though,  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  absorb  mois- 
ture, and  its  use  was  discontinued  as  soon  as  limestone 
was  discovered. 

Shells  are  used  in  large  quantities  for  spreading  on 
private  oyster  grounds  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a 


VALUE  AND  USES  OF  SHELLS  95 

"set"  of  young  oysters.  It  is  estimated  that  4,000,000 
bushels  of  oyster  shells  are  used  annually  for  this  pur- 
pose in  the  waters  of  New  York,  Connecticut  and  Vir- 
ginia. 

Another  peculiar  use  for  shells  is  in  the  manufacture 
of  certain  special  grades  of  steel. 

Personal  adornment  is  probably  the  oldest  use  of  shells ; 
and  they  are  still  used  for  that  purpose  in  many  coun- 
tries. One  of  the  most  artistic  articles  for  adornment  is 
the  shell  cameo.  The  cameos  are  carved  to  represent 
historical  scenes  such  as  the  landing  of  Columbus;  or,  a 
medallion  of  the  head  of  some  historical  character.  The 
king-conch  shell  has  generally  been  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  earlier  times  this  branch  of  art  attained  a  high 
standard  of  perfection.  Recently,  however,  it  has  been, 
very  unfortunately,  neglected ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
this  valuable  art  will  soon  receive  the  attention  which 
it  deserves. 

Shells  have  also  been  used  extensively  in  the  decora- 
tion of  buildings.  Their  principal  use  in  architecture  is 
in  the  form  of  mosaic  decorations.  A  splendid  example 
of  this  artistic  work  may  be  seen  in  the  magnificent  stair- 
way of  the  Chicago  Public  Library. 

The  great  variety  of  colors  of  the  fresh-water  shells  of 
the  United  States  make  them  very  valuable  material  for 
use  in  this  art. 

There  is  a  firm  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  which  makes 
a  specialty  of  pearl  inlaying.  The  art  products  which 
they  make  from  shells  of  various  colors  are  very  fancy 
and  attractive.  The  colored  shells  of  our  rivers  are  very 


96  PEARLS  AND   PEARLING 

well  suited  to  this  use.     There  is  room  for  many  more 
artists  in  the  pearl  inlaying  business. 

Some  of  the  uses  of  shells  are  very  odd.  A  recent 
issue  of  a  popular  scientific  magazine  contains  a  de- 
scription of  the  Kapas  sea  shells  which  are  used  as  gen- 
erally for  window  panes  in  the  Phillipine  Islands  as  we  use 
glass  in  this  country.  The  publication  shows  a  view  of  the 
windows  of  the  main  entrance  of  the  Phillipine  General 
Hospital  in  Manila.  They  are  a  fine  example  of  the  modern 
use  of  shells.  The  old  churches  there  also  have  magnificent 
windows  made  from  the  Kapas  shells.  The  shells  are 
also  used  in  windows  of  stores,  offices,  homes,  and  in 
many  other  buildings.  In  Manila  alone,  5,000,000  of  these 
shells  are  used  annually  for  windows.  The  shells  are 
almost  flat  bivalves  six  or  eight  inches  long.  The  Jargest 
will  square  four  inches  and  sell  at  $4.00  to  $5.00  per 
thousand.  The  smaller  shells  are  sold  anywhere  from 
$1.50  to  $3.00  per  thousand,  and  are  used  for  ordinary 
purposes  in  dwellings  and  stores.  The  shell  panes  have 
been  tested  and  prove  to  be  much  stronger  than  glass. 
The  inside  of  the  shell  is  glazed  and  has  a  subdued  luster. 
The  shells  are  so  thin  and  transparent  that  print  can  be 
read  through.  As  the  tropical  sunlight  filters  through  the 
silvery  greyness  of  the  shells,  it  becomes  more  gentle, 
mellow  and  magnificent.  The  value  of  shells  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  windows  in  the  Phillipines,  suggests  that 
perhaps  some  of  the  shells  in  the  United  States  might 
possibly  be  used  for  the  purpose.  The  Symphonota  com- 
planata,  or  "razor-back,"  is  large  and  thin  and  nearly 
flat.  It  is  found  in  many  tints  and  colors  and  should 


VALUE  AND  USES  OF  SHELLS  97 

answer  for  use  in  windows  very  beautifully.  It  would  be 
necessary  to  grind  away  the  epidermis  and  polish  them  on 
the  outside,  but  windows  of  such  material  would  be  very 
novel  and  valuable. 

Shells  were  used  for  currency  by  the  Indians  in  the 
early  history  of  the  United  States,  and  were  known  as 
"wampum."  Even  yet  shells  are  used  as  currency  in 
certain  parts  of  Africa. 

The  giant  clam,  Tridacna,  is  found  in  tropical  waters 
and  often  on  the  oriental  pearl  beds.  It  yields  the 
largest  shells  in  existence.  In  some  cases  a  single  pair 
of  these  weigh  over  $00  pounds.  A  diver  who  acci- 
dentally places  a  hand  or  foot  in  an  open  shell  is  impris- 
oned and  must  sever  the  limb  to  save  his  life.  These 
shells  are  often  used  as  benetiers.  A  pair  of  them  were 
giveai  by  the  Republic  of  Venice  to  Francis  L,  and  are 
now  used  as  benetiers  in  the  Church  of  St.  Sulpice,  in 
Paris. 

The  descriptions  of  some  of  the  shells  of  foreign 
waters  were  taken  from  a  paper  on  foreign  shells  and 
will  probably  be  of  interest  to  pearl  hunters  in  general. 


THE   MARCHIONESS   OF   LONDONDERRY 


CHAPTER   X. 

How  TO  PROSPECT  FOR  PEARLS. 

THE  investigation  of  a  part  or  all  of  a  certain  river 
is  now  known  as  "prospecting  for  pearls.' 
In  many  occupations  which  are  dependent  upon 
the  natural  resources  of  a  country,  it  has  been  found  that 
there  is  a  great  diversity  in  the  natural  resources  in  vari- 
ous places.  In  this  respect,  what  is  true  in  regard  to  the 
various  kinds  of  mineral  resources  is  also  true  of  pearls. 
In  order  to  do  successful  prospecting  for  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  etc.,  it  is  first  necessary  to  secure  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  circumstances  and  conditions  under  which 
the  various  minerals  are  found,  and  it  is  equally  neces- 
essary  to  have  good  preparatory  knowledge  in  order  to 
be  successful  in  prospecting  for  pearls. 

In  many  instances  there  has  been  a  total  lack  of  sys- 
tem in  the  manner  of  selecting  pearl  fisheries. 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  assist  beginners  in 
the  very  important  task  of  selecting  the  most  profitable 
place  for  their  work. 

As  pearls  are  only  found  in  the  mollusks  it  is  very 
necessary  to  know  just  what  conditions  are  most  favor- 
able for  the  growth  of  the  fresh-water  mussels.  These 
are  found  in  nearly  all  of  our  streams,  yet  they  are  more 
plentiful  in  some  places  than  in  others.  The  streams 


99 


ioo  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

which  contain  the  largest  numbers  of  mussels  are  those 
which  contain  pure  water  running  over  beds  of  lime- 
stone rock  in  some  places  along  their  course. 

Rocks  of  various  kinds  and  gravel  and  sand  are  good 
signs  of  both  shells  and  pearls.  Limestone  is  very  valu- 
able in  the  formation  of  the  shells,  yet  they  grow  well 
in  rivers  where  sandstone,  slate,  shale,  marble  or  flint  are 
commonly  found.  As  the  water  flows  over  the  stones, 
the  process  of  erosion  wears  very  fine  particles  away 
from  the  rocks  and  this  becomes  mixed  with  the  water, 
making  it  calcareous,  and  is  just  what  is  needed  for  the 
formation  of  shells  and  pearls. 

Some  rivers  have  very  little  rock  or  gravel  in  them, 
and  their  beds  are  muddy,  yet  if  there  are  rocky  bluffs 
nearby,  the  smaller  streams  carry  sufficient  quantities  of 
lime  water  into  the  river  to  provide  for  the  growth  of 
shells  and  so  the  muddy  river  also  produces  some  shells 
and  pearls. 

Some  varieties  of  mussels  do  not  form  beds,  but  are 
distributed  over  a  large  area  and  scattered  among  other 
shells. 

Other  varieties  live  in  colonies  or  beds.  The  beds  are 
of  various  sizes;  some  are  rather  small,  while  others 
are  a  mile  or  more  long.  In  some  narrow  rivers  the  beds 
may  cover  the  entire  river  bottom,  while  in  the  larger 
streams  they  are  often  in  very  narrow  beds.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  beds  depends  upon  a  number  of  conditions 
such  as  the  nature  of  the  river  bottom,  the  strength  of 
the  river  current,  the  depth  of  water,  the  position  of 
islands  and  sand-bars,  and  other  influences.  Some  beds 


How  TO  PROSPECT  FOR  PEARLS  101 

are  in  the  centers  of  large  rivers,  but  more  often  are 
upon  shoals  or  connected  with  islands  or  bars.  Very 
often  the  beds  are  in  a  portion  of  the  river  where  they 
are  somewhat  protected  from  the  full  force  of  strong  cur- 
rents in  the  swift  rivers,  and  in  the  quiet  rivers  they  are 
often  found  in  the  parts  where  the  current  is  strongest. 
They  seem  to  thrive  best  where  the  river  bottom  is 
sandy  and  gravelly,  and  where  the  water  is  moderately 
deep  and  the  flow  is  free  and  gentle. 

In  swift  rivers  the  islands  are  a  good  protection  for 
the  mussels.  They  may  be  found  on  all  sides  of  an 
island,  but  are  more  likely  to  thrive  in  the  rather  quiet 
water  between  the  island  and  the  nearest  shore,  and  be- 
low the  island.  This  is  a  very  favorable  condition  which 
makes  an  excellent  pearl  fishery  in  many  instances. 

The  beds  that  are  located  in  rocky  or  sandy  places  are 
the  most  likely  to  produce  pearls,  baroques  and  slugs. 

The  size  and  color  of  the  shells  are  an  indication  as  to 
the  size  and  color  of  the  pearls,  baroques  and  slugs.  The 
very  largest  shells  produce  the  largest  pearls,  while  the 
smallest  shells  produce  small  pearls  and  never  yield 
large  ones.  The  color  of  the  pearl  is  the  same  as  that 
portion  of  the  shell  nearest  to  it  when  found.  Practi- 
cally all  fine  pearls  are  found  in  the  posterior  or  thin  end 
of  the  shell,  and  as  that  portion  of  the  shell  is  often 
brilliant,  the  pearl  has  a  better  luster  than  the  other  parts 
of  the  shell. 

In  some  instances  it  is  desirable  to  know  if  a  portion 
of  a  river  has  a  sandy  bottom.  Some  pearl  hunters  use 
a  convenient  method  of  getting  this  information.  A 


IO2  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

cake  of  laundry  soap  is  tied  to  a  weight  on  the  end  of  a 
line  and  dragged  a  few  feet  on  the  bed  of  the  river.  If 
the  soap  gathers  sand  it  is  a  proof  that  the  river  bed  is 
sandy  at  that  place. 

When  small  shells  are  found  open  upon  the  bank  of 
rivers  or  lakes  it  is  an  indication  that  there  are  shells  in 
the  water.  Muskrats,  raccoons  and  other  predacious  ani- 
mals bring  out  the  small  mussels  for  food. 

The  distorted  shells  known  as  "cripples"  are  the  ones 
which  generally  contain  the  fine  pearls,  yet  only  certain 
ones  of  these  contain  pearls.  They  are  described  fully 
in  another  chapter. 

The  appearance  of  the  shores  often  indicate  the  amount 
of  labor  that  will  be  involved  in  pearl  hunting  in  a  cer- 
tain locality. 

A  large  number  of  old  trees,  logs  and  brush  in  the 
water  along  the  shores,  indicate  a  great  many  snags,  or 
"hang  ups,"  on  the  bottom  of  the  river,  which  will  cause 
unlimited  trouble  when  the  crow-foot  dredge  or  dip  net 
is  used.  The  logs  and  stumps  have  been  especially  trou- 
blesome in  the  Illinois  River. 

The  parasites  should  receive  special  consideration  in 
prospecting  for  pearls.  These  are  the  causes  of  the  for- 
mation of  most  pearls,  baroques  and  slugs,  so  it  is  very 
important  to  select  a  pearl  fishery  where  these  are  most 
abundant.  Among  the  parasites  that  are  found  in  the 
mussels  there  are  several  that  are  especially  prominent. 
The  Cotyldspis  insignis,  Leidy,  can  be  seen  with  the  naked 
eye  and  some  of  them  resemble  a  small  pale  leech.  An- 


How  TO  PROSPECT  FOR  PEARLS  103 

other,  The  Aspidogaster  conchicola,  is  very  similar  to  the 
one  just  mentioned. 

The  common  leech  is  not  so  numerous,  but  is  also  a 
parasite  which  affects  the  mussels.  There  are  several 
others,  but  these  three  are  especially  noticeable,  and 
pearl  hunters  should  examine  the  shells  to  see  if  these 
small  parasites  are  plentiful. 

The  parasites  prefer  to  live  in  shallow,  warm  and 
quiet  pools  rather  than  in  the  deep,  cool,  swift  currents 
of  rivers. 

The  placid  shallow  water  between  an  island  and  the 
nearest  shore  is  an  excellent  location  for  them  to  get  a 
start,  and,  a  little  farther  down  the  stream  on  the  same 
side,  if  deeper  water  can  be  found,  it  will  be  one  of  the 
best  places  to  hunt  for  fine  pearls,  for  the  reason  that 
the  mussels  seem  to  gradually  move  down  stream  into 
deeper  water  as  they  grow  older  and  larger. 

The  author  has  hunted  for  pearls  in  places  of  this 
kind.  An  excellent  example  of  such  a  pearl  fishery  is  to 
be  found  near  the  east  shore  of  the  Mississippi  River* 
a  little  more  than  a  mile  south  of  Rapids  City,  Illinois. 
Mr.  Cumber,  an  expert  pearl  hunter  who  lives  near 
there,  has  been  very  fortunate  in  hunting  for  pearls  in 
that  pearl  fishery.  He  has  found  a  number  of  very  fine 
pearls,  besides  large  quantities  of  baroques  and  slugs. 
His  favorite  method  of  fishing  for  shells  is  to  use  the 
long  handled  fork  from  a  boat  in  the  summer,  and  from 
the  ice  in  the  winter.  In  taking  less  than  four  tons 'of 
shells  while  fishing  through  the  ice  he  found  $400.00 
worth  of  pearls.  Since  he  first  began  pearl  hunting  in 


IO4.  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

that  locality  he  has  saved  considerable  money  from  the 
sale  of  shells,  pearls,  baroques  and  slugs,  and  has  bought 
a  small  farm  and  built  a  pretty  home.  In  mentioning  the 
good  fortune  of  Mr.  Cumber,  it  should  be  stated  that  he 
has  been  far  more  successful  than  the  average  pearl 
hunter,  and  amateurs  must  not  infer  that  they  may  be 
sure  of  doing  as  well. 

Other  favorable  places  for  pearl  hunting  may  be  found 
just  below  sand  or  gravel  bars,  and  especially  below  the 
bars  which  are  found  at  the  mouth  of  a  creek  or  smaller 
stream  which  comes  through  a  rocky  district.  These 
bars  protect  the  mussel  beds  from  the  strong  currents, 
and,  as  the  water  is  rather  shallow  just  below  them,  it  is 
warmer  and  large  numbers  of  parasites  thrive  and  affect 
the  mussels.  The  deeper  water  just  a  little  below- such 
places  is  one  of  the  best  places  to  look  for  fine  pearls. 

Many  fine  pearls  have  been  found  in  locations  where 
the  river  bed  often  contains  deposits  of  blue  mud. 

While  the  places  that  have  been  described  are  the  ones 
most  likely  to  yield  pearls,  they  are  also  found  in  other 
places  which  do  not  appear  to  be  so  favorable. 

Where  beds  are  located  near  steamboat  landings,  occa- 
sionally shells  can  be  found  that  have  been  injured  by 
the  steamboats,  and  these  shells  sometimes  contain  slugs 
and  baroques,  and  in  rare  cases  pearls  have  been  found 
in  them.  The  importance  of  the  steamboat  landing,  how- 
ever, has  been  greatly  overestimated. 

In  prospecting  for  pearls,  it  is  very  important  to  mark 
every  new  place  that  is  especially  favorable.  At  any 
particular  spot  where  an  unusually  large  number  of 


io6  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

shells  have  been  taken,  or  where  a  pearl  has  been  found, 
or  when,  for  other  reasons  it  is  desirable  to  return  to  the 
very  same  location,  it  is  necessary  to  use  some  reliable 
plan  which  will  help  to  find  the  place  again.  Water  is 
very  deceptive,  and  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  dis- 
tance between  various  objects  or  the  distance  from  the 
shore. 

If  the  pearl  hunter  is  in  a  boat,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
he  should  anchor  the  boat  immediately  before  it  is  moved 
by  the  river  current  or  the  wind.  He  will  then  have  time 
to  note  his  position  carefully  and  the  best  plan  for  mark- 
ing such  a  place  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  26.  This  is  a  view  of 
the  Illinois  River,  near  Bedford,  and  shows  a  system  of 
marking  a  certain  location  by  getting  trees  and  other  ob- 
jects on  the  shore  in  alignment.  By  a  careful  study  of 
the  illustration,  the  amateur  will  understand  this  very 
effective  system  of  locating  mussel  beds.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  carry  a  small  note-book  and  a  pencil  while  at 
work  and  make  a  rough  sketch  of  any  position  to  which 
it  is  desirable  to  return.  In  this  method  it  is  best  to 
sight  in  several  different  directions,  getting  two  widely 
separated  objects  in  line  with  each  other  in  each  direc- 
tion, and  remembering  the  various  objects  that  were 
placed  in  alignment.  The  system  is  so  perfect  that  an 
experienced  pearl  hunter  can  return  to  the  exact  location 
of  any  place  which  he  may  mark. 

Some  beds  of  mussels  do  not  run  straight,  so  they  may 
require  several  marks  to  enable  the  pearl  hunter  to  fol- 
low them  accurately  and  without  loss  of  time.  The  men 
who  know  every  turn  in  the  mussel  beds  are  the  ones 


How  TO  PROSPECT  FOR  PEARLS  107 

who  can  get  the  most  shells  in  a  day.  In  some  places 
an  anchored  float  or  a  long  stake  driven  into  the  mud  is 
used  to  mark  a  location,  but  neither  are  satisfactory  as 
they  point  out  the  place  to  every  one  and  cannot  remain 
long  where  pearl  hunting  appliances  are  used. 

The  methods  of  prospecting  for  pearls  which  have 
been  described  have  been  proved  to  be  very  reliable,  and 
pearl  hunters  may  profit  by  their  use. 


CHAPTER    XL 
How  TO  MAKE  A  CROW-FOOT  DREDGE  OUTFIT. 

THE  most  common  appliance  that  is  used  by  pearl 
hunters  for  the  purpose  of  catching  mussels  is 
the  "Crow-foot  Dredge."  In  the  spring  of  1897 
this  very  ingenious  and  practical  device  came  into  use 
and  has  been  very  popular.  A  view  of  several  complete 
outfits  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  27.  The  dredge  consists  of 
two  pieces  of  iron  gas  pipe  to  which  are  attached  large 
numbers  of  lines.  Several  hooks,  each  having  four  prongs, 
are  attached  to  each  line.  A  bridle  rope  is  attached  to 
each  bar  near  both  ends  of  the  pipe.  A  larger  long  -rope 
is  fastened  to  both  *  bridles,  thus  connecting  the  two 
dredges.  The  boat  is  usually  eighteen  or  twenty  feet 
long,  with  a  flat  bottom  and  square  ends.  It  is,  there- 
fore, safe  to  use,  and  will  carry  a  good  load.  Four  up- 
right pieces  of  wood,  two  for  each  side,  are  fastened  to 
the  gunwales  of  the  boat  and  serve  as  standards  to  hold 
the  bars  when  they  are  not  being  dragged  over  the  bot- 
tom of  the  river.  The  standards  should  be  notched  on 
the  top  end  and  should  lean  slightly  toward  the  center  of 
the  boat  so  that  any  mussels  that  drop  off  the  hooks 
will  fall  into  the  boat,  rather  than  into  the  water.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  standards  and  near  the  top  of  the  gun- 
wales short  notched  pieces  of  wood  are  attached,  which 

1 08 


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no  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

also  serve  as  rests  to  hold  the  bars.  These  are  called 
half  rests,  and  the  bar  is  first  placed  on  them  after  be- 
ing raised  out  of  the  water.  Then  it  is  raised  one  end 
at  a  time,  and  placed  on  the  high  standards.  There  is 
another  part  of  the  outfit  known  as  the  "mule,"  which 
consists  of  a  wooden  frame  with  a  heavy  cloth  tacked 
over  it,  with  small  guide  ropes  tied  to  it. 

After  the  dredge  is  placed  in  the  water  and  anchored 
to  the  front  end  of  the  boat,  the  "mule"  is  placed  in  the 
water  on  its  edge  at  the  back  end  of  the  boat,  and  at- 
tached to  the  boat  by  the  guide  ropes.  The  current  of 
water  strikes  the  broad  surface  of  the  "mule,"  which 
causes  it  to  pull  the  boat  and  dredge.  As  the  dredge  is 
gradually  pulled  down  stream  the  hooks  catch  the  mus- 
sels. The  usefulness  of  the  appliance  depends  upon,  the 
habits  of  the  mussels.  They  rest  on  the  bottom,  often 
partly  buried  in  sand  or  mud,  with  the  posterior  end  of 
their  shells  facing  upstream  and  partly  open  to  admit  the 
water  which  contains  both  oxygen  and  food.  As  soon 
as  they  are  touched  they  close  their  shells  quickly,  and 
any  foreign  object  which  happens  to  be  in  the  shell  is 
tightly  grasped  and  held.  As  the  dredge  is  dragged  over 
the  mussels  the  prongs  of  the  hooks  enter  the  open  shell 
and  the  mussel  shells  close  and  grip  them  tightly.  After 
a  sufficient  number  have  become  attached,  the  dredge  is 
raised  to  the  boat. 

Now  that  a  general  description  of  the  entire  outfit  has 
been  given,  the  parts  of  the  crow-foot  dredge  will  be 
described  separately.  Fig.  28  shows  the  "mule." 

The  size  of  the  mule  needed  will  depend  upon  the 


How  TO  MAKE  A  CROW-FOOT  DREDGE  OUTFIT,     in 


Fig.  28.     The  "Mule." 

strength  of  the  current  in  the  river  where  the  dredge  is  to 
be  used,  and  will  also  depend  upon  the  number  of  hooks 
to  each  dredge  and  the  nature  of  the  river  bottom. 
Usually  during  the  spring  months  when  the  current  is 
strong  a  mule  2^/2  feet  by  5  feet  will  be  large  enough, 
but  later  in  the  summer  when  the  water  is  lower  and  the 
current  is  not  so  strong  it  will  require  a  larger  mule  to 
pull  a  large  dredge.  A  strong  but  light  wooden  frame 
is  made  and  covered  with  a  heavy  cloth.  The  cloth  should 
be  tacked  on  rather  loosely  so  the  water  can  fill  in  like 
the  wind  in  a  sail.  This  will  make  it  pull  better.  Some 
use  a  piece  of  gas  pipe  or  other  iron  along  the  bottom  of 
the  mule  to  help  sink  it,  although  it  is  not  really  neces- 


H2  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

sary  to  use  a  weight.  The  center  wooden  piece  should 
extend  a  little  above  the  rest  of  the  mule  and  be  sharp- 
ened so  a  small  rope  can  be  attached  to  it.  The  other 
end  is  attached  to  the  boat.  This  rope  is  tightened  to 
bring  the  mule  out  of  the  water  or  by  giving  the  mule 
more  rope  it  sinks  deeper  into  the  water  and  pulls 


"CROW    FOOT"    HOOK,    ACTUAL    SIZE. 
Courtesy  of  H.  Willard  Son  d-  Co. 


How  TO  MAKE  A  CROW-FOOT  DREDGE  OUTFIT.     113 


Fig.  29.     Hooks  and  Lines. 

stronger.  There  is  another  rope  which  is  known  as  a 
guide  rope  and  each  end  of  it  is  attached  to  a  lower 
corner  of  the  mule.  When  the  mule  is  in  use  the  guide 
rope  is  passed  over  some  nails  or  other  projections  in 
the  back  end  of  the  boat  and  can  be  slipped  to  the  right 


1 14 


PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 


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OUTLINE  SHAPE  OP  A  "CROW  FOOT"    DREDGE. 
Courtesy  of  If.   Willard  Son  &  Co. 

or  left.  If  it  is  desirable  to  move  the  boat  to  the  right, 
the  guide  rope  on  the  right  side  is  tightened,  which  also 
loosens  the  left  rope.  If  it  is  desirable  to  move  the  boat 
farther  to  the  left,  the  left  guide  rope  is  tightened  and 
the  right  guide  rope  is  loosened,  'if  it  is  desirable  to  go 
straight  ahead  the  guide  ropes  should  be  made  equal. 

Another  very  serviceable  mule  is  made  similar  to  the 
one  illustrated  except  that  no  frame  is  used.  The  cloth 
is  attached  to  a  wooden  strip  above  and  an  iron  bar  be- 
low. It  is  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  other  mule. 
The  large  hauling  rope  which  is  used  to  drag  and  lift  the 
dredges  should  be  a  strong  one.  A  five-eighths  inch 
new  hemp  rope  is  strong  enough,  but  is  so  small  that  it 
cuts  the  hands.  A  new  one  or  one  and  one-quarter  inch 


How  TO  MAKE  A  CROW-FOOT  DREDGE  OUTFIT.     115 

rope  is  very  good  for  the  purpose,  as  it  is  larger  and 
easier  to  handle.  Any  new  rope  gradually  gets  larger 
after  being  used  awhile.  One  objection  to  a  new  rope 
is  that  it  twists  and  gets  full  of  kinks  which  make  the 
rope  inconvenient  to  handle.  A  good,  strong  swivel  at 
one  end  will  allow  the  pearl  hunter  to  get  rid  of  the 
twists  easily.  Another  plan  is  to  use  a  ring  on  the  bridle 
and  a  snap  on  the  end  of  the  rope.  The  snap  can  be 
loosened  so  the  rope  can  be  untwisted,  but  the  snap  is 
liable  to  come  open  while  the  dredge  is  on  the  river  bot- 
tom in  use,  so  it  is  not  as  reliable  as  a  good  swivel.  After 
the  rope  has  been  used  for  awhile  it  will  not  give  much 
trouble  by  twisting.  The  length  of  the  rope  needed  will 
depend  upon  the  depth  of  water.  At  Florence,  Illinois, 
the  ropes  used  are  generally  about  sixty-five  feet  long.  At 
some  places  more  rope  is  required,  while  at  other  places 
less  will  do.  There  should  be  enough  to  reach  the  bot- 
tom of  the  river,  letting  the  dredge  drag  back  of  the 
boat  a  sufficient  distance  to  make  sure  that  all  the  hooks 
are  scratching  the  bottom  of  the  river,  and,  in  addition, 
there  should  be  about  twenty-five  feet  left  in  the  boat. 
Some  is  needed  to  anchor  the  dredge,  while  at  least  ten 
feet  more  is  needed  to  reach  back  to  the  dredge,  which 
rests  on  the  standards,  and  there  should  also  be  an  al- 
lowance made  for  the  shrinkage  of  a  new  rope. 

The  river  may  raise  some  and  more  rope  will  be  re- 
quired on  that  account. 

Some  pearl  hunters  like  to  drag  both  bars  at  once  on 
some  occasions,  which,  of  course,  requires  more  rope. 

The  bars  are  usually  twelve  to  sixteen  feet  long  and 


How  TO  MAKE  A  CROW-FOOT  DREDCE  OUTFIT.     117 

are  about  five-eighths  to  one  inch  in  diameter.  A  strong 
wooden  peg  is  driven  into  each  end  of  the  bar,  and  a 
wire  is  fastened  to  it  and  run  along  the  bar  several  feet, 
where  it  is  joined  to  the  bridle  rope  at  the  place  where  it 
is  tied  to  the  bar.  The  bridle  rope  is  fastened  so  that  it 
is  rather  loose,  and  the  hauling  rope  is  tied  to  it  in  the 
center  in  such  a  manner  as  will  keep  it  from  slipping  to- 
ward either  end  of  the  bar.  The  hauling  rope  is  also  tied 
to  the  middle  of  the  bar. 

The  lines  used  to  hold  the  hooks  are  strong,  twisted 
cotton,  known  as  marlin.  The  kind  which  is  best  adapted 
to  the  use  is  number  120  marlin.  Number  96  will  do,  but 
it  is  not  quite  large  enough  to  wear  well.  The  number 
1 20  is  sometimes  sold  in  two  styles.  One  is  a  hard 
twisted  cord  and  the  other  is  softer  and  seems  larger. 
The  hard  twisted  cords  do  not  last  well  as  they  soon  be- 
come cut  out  on  the  sharp  gravel.  The  softer  cord  wears 
much  better.  The  lines  are  cut  the  proper  length  and 
tied  to  the  bar  about  three  or  four  inches  apart.  Three 
or  four  hooks  are  tied  to  each  line.  The  manner  of  ty- 
ing the  lines  to  the  bars  and  the  hooks  to  the  lines  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  29. 

The  amateur  will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  tie  the 
knots  as  they  are  shown  in  the  illustration.  In  attaching 
the  hooks  he  should  be  careful  to  allow  a  large  loop 
where  the  hook  is  tied.  The  loops  are  a  great  advantage 
when  the  dredge  is  in  use,  as  all  dredges  get  tangled  up 
in  various  ways  and  they  can  be  untangled  much  more 
easily  if  the  hooks  are  loose  so  they  can  swing  free.  The 
lines  shrink  considerably,  so  the  loop  should  be  a  large 


n8  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

one.  If  the  knots  are  made  just  like  the  one  in  the  draw- 
ing they  will  not  slip  down  against  the  hooks.  In  the 
same  illustration,  two  styles  of  hooks  can  be  seen.  One 
is  the  wrapped  hook  and  the  other  is  the  twisted  hook. 
The  wrapped  hook  is  a  very  good  one,  and  is  easy  to  keep 
in  good  condition.  It  is  made  by  cutting  wires  into 
lengths  of  about  ten  inches.  Then  two  are  folded  to- 
gether and  held  in  a  clamp,  while  a  baling  wire  is  wrapped 
around  them,  after  which  the  ends  are  cut  even  and 
bent  properly  with  pliers. 

The  twisted  hook  is  easier  to  make  and  does  the  work 
very  well.  Through  a  courtesy  of  Mr.  C.  N.  Douglas,  of 
Florence,  Illinois,  a  photograph  of  a  machine  for  making 
twisted  hooks  is  shown  in  Fig.  30. 

The  machine  consists  of  a  strong  wooden  box  upon 
which  is  mounted  a  crank  at  one  end  and  at  the  other 
end  a  metal  plate,  having  four  holes  in  it  is  attached  to 
the  box.  In  making  this  kind  of  a  hook  machine  a  piece 
of  one-half  inch  iron  about  thirty  inches  long  is  used 
for  the  crank.  It  is  bent  to  the  proper  form  and,  in 
making  the  hook  part  it  should  be  left  fully  one-half  inch 
in  diameter  so  that  it  will  make  large  eyes  in  the  hooks. 
The  hook  part  is  pointed,  but  at  the  place  where  the 
hooks  are  held  it  should  be  the  full  thickness.  The 
metal  plate  is  perforated  with  four  one- fourth  inch  holes, 
all  within  an  area  of  one  inch  square.  It  is  also  a  good 
plan  to  drill  several  other  holes  in  it  so  as  to  bolt  it 
to  the  box.  Different  sizes  of  wires  are  used  in  making 
hooks,  the  sizes  depending  upon  sizes  of  mussels  that  are 
to  be  taken*  For  the  smallest  mussels  a  number  is  wire 


How  TO  MAKE  A  CROW-FOOT  DREDGE  OUTFIT.     119 

is  occasionally  used,  but  it  will  not  catch  the  larger  ones. 

Number  n  wire  is  the  most  popular.  Number  10  is 
used  for  the  largest  shells,  and  even  number  9  is  used 
occasionally.  The  strength  of  the  heavy  wire  hooks  does 
not  allow  them  to  let  go  of  a  snag,  and  if  a  dredge  con- 
taining a  large  number  of  number  9  wire  hooks  becomes 
entangled  around  a  solid  snag,  the  pearl  hunter  begins  to 
wish  for  an  ocean  liner  to  help  him  pull  loose.  The 
number  n  wire  hooks  will  straighten  out  somewhat 
under  a  strong  pull,  and  thus  the  dredge  becomes  free 
again  and  is  ready  for  use  as  soon  as  the  hooks  are  bent 
to  the  proper  angle  with  the  pliers.  In  making  the  twisted 
hooks,  the  wire  is  first  cut  into  lengths  of  ten  inches, 
called  needles.  The  needles  are  made  into  hair-pins  and 
two  hair-pins  are  placed  on  the  hook  end  of  the  crank, 
and  the  ends  of  the  hair-pins  are  passed  through  the 
holes  in  the  plate.  The  crank  is  then  turned  several 
revolutions,  and  the  hook  is  finished,  except  for  cutting 
the  ends  even  and  bending  the  prongs  properly. 

The  different  stages  in  the  development  can  be  seen  on 
the  side  of  the  machine  in  the  illustration.  The  boats  are 
propelled  by  the  oars  or  by  a  small  gasoline  engine.  In 
new  pearl  fisheries  where  the  mussels  are  very  plentiful 
and  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  far,  the  oars  are  used  and 
there  is  not  much  need  for  an  engine,  besides  there  is 
more  room  in  the  boat  without  it.  In  older  pearl  fish- 
eries there  are  less  shells  and  more  drags  are  necessary 
to  get  a  given  number  of  shells,  so  the  engine  is  a  great 
advantage,  and  if  it  is  desirable  to  tow  other  boats,  a 
stronger  engine  is  required.  Most  of  the  mussel  boats 


i2o  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

on  the  Illinois  River  have  engines  in  them.  The  sizes 
of  the  engines  which  are  needed  for  the  work  depend 
upon  the  size  of  the  boat,  the  number  of  boats  to  be  towed 
and  other  conditions.  Most  of  the  boats  contain  two- 
horsepower  engines,  while  some  contain  much  larger 
ones,  and  are  used  to  tow  other  boats.  The  author  has 
had  both  the  rowboat  and  engine-boats  in  his  pearl  hunt- 
ing experiences,  and  knows  the  strain  of  rowing  up- 
stream as  well  as  the  aggravations  of  the  gasoline  motor. 
The  outfits  in  the  various  localities  differ  slightly,  yet  the 
outfit  that  is  described  here  is  the  most  approved  style, 
used  with  good  results  in  practically  all  of  our  pearl 
fisheries. 


CHAPTER   XII. 
How  TO  USE  THE  CROW-FOOT  DREDGE  OUTFIT. 

MOST  of  the  mussel  shells  that  have  been  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  buttons  have  been  taken 
from  the  water  by  the  use  of  the  Crow-foot 
Dredge.  Its  construction  and  use  are  based  upon  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  the  mussels  and  their  mode  of  living. 
It  has  been  so  generally  used  and  has  proved  so  practical 
that  its  use  will  probably  be  continued  for  many  years 
in  various  pearl  fisheries. 

In  using  the  crow- foot  dredge  outfit  it  is  necessry  for 
the  pearl  hunter  to  keep  an  extra  supply  of  line  and 
hooks  in  the  boat.  The  lines  will  wear  and  some  hooks 
will  come  off  the  lines.  Sometimes  one  can  avoid  the  loss 
of  hooks  by  noticing  the  lines  and  repairing  them.  Where 
a  line  is  badly  worn,  it  should  be  replaced  before  the 
hooks  are  lost.  The  hooks  often  straighten  out  while 
being  used  and  should  be  kept  in  good  condition  with  the 
pliers  as  the  prongs  will  not  catch  the  mussels  if  they  are 
not  bent  to  the  proper  angle. 

In  old  pearl  fisheries  the  pearl  hunter  finds  about  as 
many  hooks  as  he  loses.  In  fact  he  finds  many  things, 
and  it  is  surprising  how  many  different  articles  can  be 
caught  on  the  mussel  hooks.  Old  shoes,  over-shoes,  rub- 
ber boots,  cans,  bottles,  shot-guns,  jugs,  knives,  cinders, 


121 


122  PEARLS  ANI>  PEARLING 

purses,  traps,  wires  and  pieces  of  harness  are  only  a  few 
of  the  hundreds  of  articles  that  are  brought  out  of  the 
water  in  the  work  of  "crow- footing."  The  hooks  get 
practically  everything  which  happens  to  be  on  the  bottom 
of  the  river. 

One  part  of  the  boat  should  be  cleared  to  allow  a  space 
to  throw  the  mussels  as  they  are  taken  from  the  hooks. 
Some  old  dead  shells  are  caught  and  should  not  be 
thrown  back  into  the  water,  but  should  be  put  in  one  end 
of  the  boat  and  later  emptied  on  the  shore. 

Where  a  number  of  crowr-foot  mussel  boats  are  at 
work  the  mussels  are  disturbed  so  often  that  they  close 
their  shells  and  are  therefore  not  ready  to  "bite,"  and  so 
there  are  less  taken  for  awhile.  In  such  cases  the  best 
time  to  catch  them  is  very  early  in  the  morning  after  they 
have  had  a  quiet  rest  and  are  feeding  again.  The  first 
ones  who  drag  their  dredges  over  them  get  the  most 
shells. 

In  using  the  dredges  the  boat  should  be  moved  to  the 
upper  portion  of  the  mussel  bed  and  turned  crosswise 
with  the  river,  and  the  dredge  should  be  placed  slowly 
into  the  water  parallel  with  the  gunwales  of  the  boat,  then 
lowered  to  the  river  bottom.  This  method  causes  the 
bar  to  drag  properly.  Then  let  out  a  sufficient  amount 
of  rope  to  allow  all  the  hooks  to  drag  freely  on  the  bot- 
tom and  tie  the  rope  to  the  front  of  the  boat,  and  put  the 
mule  to  work  at  the  rear  of  the  boat. 

It  is  sometimes  possible  to  ascertain  as  to  whether  the 
hooks  are  dragging  over  the  mussel  bed  by  reaching  ovef 
the  end  of  the  boat  and  holding  the  hauling  rope  in  one 


USING  THE  CROW-FOOT  DREDGE  123 

hand  for  a  few  minutes.  If  it  seems  to  move  rather 
unevenly  it  is  a  good  sign  it  is  catching  the  mussels,  hut 
if  it  drags  very  smoothly  and  evenly  it  is  an  indication 
that  the  boat  is  not  over  the  mussel  bed.  By  using  the 
guide  ropes  on  the  mule  the  boat  can  be  guided  to  the 
right  or  left  so  as  to  move  to  a  more  favorable  position. 
The  top  rope  of  the  mule  is  to  regulate  the  speed  of  the 
boat.  The  deeper  the  mule  sets  in  the  water,  the  faster 
it  moves  the  boat.  By  a  little  practice  one  can  soon  tell 
just  about  the  time  required  to  get  a  loaded  dredge  bar 
in  a  certain  river.  They  should  be  taken  from  the  water 
at  regular  intervals,  however,  as  when  they  are  left  to 
drag  too  long,  the  mussels  that  have  been  caught  on  the 
hooks  will  gradually  let  loose.  In  raising  the  dredge  bar 
the  first  thing  to  do  is"  to  take  the  mule  out  of  the 
water.  Then  loosen  the  rope  at  the  front  and  stand  in 
the  center  of  the  boat  and  pull  in  the  rope  and  lift  the 
dredge  and  set  it  on  the  half  rests.  Then  turn  around 
and  place  the  other  dredge  into  the  water  and  let  out 
sufficient  rope  and  tie  the  hauling  rope  to  the  front  of  the 
boat  again.  The  next  thing  is  to  place  the  mule  to  work 
again  and  raise  the  loaded  bar,  one  end  at  a  time,  upon 
the  high  standard  where  the  mussels  can  be  pulled  from 
the  hooks,  and  if  some  hooks  are  bent  straight  they  may 
be  bent  properly.  The  pearl  hunter  should  stand  in  the 
center  of  the  boat  while  drawing  in  the  dredge  for  the 
reason  that  this  plan  will  make  the  boat  lie  crosswise 
with  the  stream  and  will  therefore  be  in  the  proper  posi- 
tion when  he  turns  around  to  place  the  other  dredge  into 
the  water,  By  the  time  the  mussels  are  taken  from  the 


124  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

hooks  it  is  usually  time  to  take  up  the  other  bar.  The 
workman  must  also  watch  to  keep  the  boat  over  the  mus- 
sel bed. 

There  are  some  men  who  sometimes  drag  both  bars 
on  the  mussel  beds  at  the  same  time.  In  some  places 
where  the  current  is  strong  enough  to  pull  both  bars  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  use  this  method  over  the  portion  of  the 
bed  which  contains  the  most  mussels.  The  amateur  will 
have  enough  to  do  in  dragging  one  bar  successfully,  but 
later  when  he  has  learned  the  position  of  the  bed  better 
and  can  handle  the  boat  and  dredges  with  more  ease  it 
will  be  possible  for  him  to  use  both  bars  to  advantage 
in  some  places. 

In  using  both  bars  the  first  bar  is  placed  a  long  distance 
from  the  boat  and  the  rope  is  tied  to  the  front  of  the 
boat,  while  the  second  bar  is  placed  nearer  to  the  boat, 
and  the  rope  is  tied  to  one  of  the  rear  standards.  Then 
the  mule  is  placed  in  the  water  deeply  to  pull  well,  and 
the  pearl  hunter  can  give  his  entire  attention  to  guiding 
his  boat.  When  the  time  comes  to  raise  the  bars,  the 
mule  should  remain  at  work  until  one  bar  is  raised,  and 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  one  which  was  placed  in 
the  water  last  and  which  is  nearest  the  boat  should  be 
raised  first  and  placed  on  the  standards.  By  this  time 
the  other  dredge  has  also  been  dragged  far  enough  so  the 
mule  can  be  raised  and  the  dredge  in  the  water  anchors 
the  boat  while  the  mussels  are  being  taken  from  the 
hooks  of  the  dredge  which  has  been  raised.  In  new  pearl 
fisheries  where  the  mussels  are  very  plentiful  it  is  not 
often  desirable  to  use  both  bars  at  once,  as  enough  shells 


USING  THE  CROW-FOOT  DREDGE  125 

can  be  secured  by  dragging  one  dredge  at  a  time.  In 
guiding  the  boat  to  keep  it  in  the  proper  position  it  will 
be  advisable  to  use  the  method  illustrated  in  Fig.  26  and 
described  in  Chapter  X. 

Where  a  number  of  these  boats  are  in  use  on  one  mus- 
sel bed  the  pearl  hunters  will  need  to  be  careful  or  their 
dredge  bars  will  get  close  together  and  become  en- 
tangled. There  is  really  no  occasion  for  such  an  acci- 
dent, yet  sometimes  the  men  become  busy  and  do  not 
notice  that  the  boats  are  drifting  too  close  to  each  other. 
The  work  of  separating  the  bars  is  very  tedious  and  un- 
profitable. 

Very  often  small  logs  and  pieces  of  wood  and  other 
trash  are  brought  up  with  the  dredge.  It  is  a  good  rule, 
and  well  followed  in  most  pearl  fisheries,  to  place  all  such 
inside  the  boat  and  take  it  to  the  shore  at  the  time  or 
later.  Where  the  logs  are  large,  other  men  near  should 
assist  in  loading  the  log.  By  such  care  and  co-operation 
the  mussel  bed  is  soon  cleared  of  all  trash,  and  can  be 
worked  with  more  ease  and  profit. 

It  is  a  common  thing  to  get  the  dredge  caught  upon  a 
snag  from  which  it  is  difficult  to  loosen  it.  In  such  a 
predicament  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  mark  the  location 
carefully  so  it  will  not  cause  trouble  again.  If  the  boat 
contains  an  engine  like  the  one  belonging  to  Mr.  C. 
Davis,  of  Florence,  Illinois,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  31,  it 
is  much  easier  to  pull  the  bar  loose  from  the  snag.  The 
best  way  is  to  let  out  as  much  rope  as  possible  and  tie  the 
rope  to  the  bow  of  the  boat.  Then  start  the  engine  and 
run  straight  up  stream  at  full  speed.  The  sudden  jerk  is 


126  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

almost  sure  to  loosen  the  dredge,  and,  if  the  bar  is  re- 
moved from  the  snag,  it  should  be  raised  to  the  boat  be- 
fore it  is  caught  again.  If  the  first  attempt  results  in  a 
failure  it  will  be  necessary  to  keep  trying  until  the  bar 
is  loosened.  If  the  boat  does  not  have  an  engine  in  it 
and  it  is  possible  to  secure  the  assistance  of  an  engine- 
boat  the  two  should  be  lashed  together  at  the  bows  and 
placed  side  by  side  and  moved  upstream  in  the  same 
manner  as  has  been  described.  When  oars  alone  are 
used  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  loosen  a  bar  from  a  large 
snag.  In  this  case  it  is  a  good  plan  to  go  to  the  front  of 
the  boat  and  try  to  pull  up  the  bar,  either  with  the  snag 
or  without  it.  Some  snags  can  be  brought  up  in  this  way, 
yet  if  it  is  a  large  one  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  other 
methods.  One  plan  is  to  draw  the  rope  as  tight  as  pos- 
sible and  tie  it  to  the  bow  of  the  boat  and  go  to  the  rear 
of  the  boat  and  jump  up  and  down  or  shake  the  boat 
from  one  side  to  the  other.  The  agitation  will  often  dis- 
lodge the  dredge. 

Another  method  is  to  let  out  all  the  loose  rope  and  tie 
the  rope  to  the  bow  of  the  boat,  and  then  row  up  stream 
rapidly.  The  sudden  strain  on  the  dredge  is  very  likely 
to  loosen  it  from  the  snag.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to 
cut  the  rope  and  leave  the  bar  with  the  snag,  which,  of 
course,  makes  the  snag  worse  than  it  was,  and  the  lost 
bar  must  be  replaced  in  order  to  proceed  with  the  pearl 
hunting.  There  are  many  bars  lost  on  snags,  but  in  most 
cases  they  pull  loose  from  the  snag  as  a  part  of  the  snag 
breaks  or  the  hooks  straighten  in  the  efforts  to  dislodge 
them.  Pearl  hunters  should  keep  each  other  informed 


128  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

as  to  the  exact  location  of  the  snags,  or  "hang-tips,"  as 
they  are  often  called. 

Winds  are  a  great  hindrance  to  the  use  of  the  crow- 
foot dredge,  especially  where  the  mussel  beds  are  very 
narrow  and  difficult  to  follow.  Winds  that  blow  parallel 
to  the  course  of  the  rivers  are  not  very  troublesome,  but 
the  cross  winds  are  very  troublesome  and  it  is  often  nec- 
essary to  quit  work  until  the  wind  ceases. 

Another  difficulty  on  some  rivers  is  the  steam-boat 
waves.  It  is  usually  a  good  plan  to  take  the  mussel 
boat  to  the  shore  and  stand  on  the  bank  until  the  large 
boat  goes  by.  It  is  disagreeable  and  sometimes  danger- 
ous to  remain  in  a  mussel  boat  when  the  waves  are  high. 
The  rocking  of  the  boat  causes  the  lines  and  hooks  to 
swing  in  all  directions  and  often  strike  one  in  the  face 
or  catch  in  the  clothing.  It  is  best  to  avoid  all  such 
dangers. 

When  the  outfit  is  not  in  use,  the  large  hauling  rope 
should  be  taken  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  boat  and 
stretched  over  the  bars  so  it  will  dry.  The  ropes  last 
longer  when  they  have  proper  care. 

There  is  another  way  in  which  the  crow-foot  dredge 
is  sometimes  used.  There  are  some  lakes  in  which  there 
is  no  current  and  it  would  be  impossible  to  use  the  mussel 
boats  as  they  are  used  on  the  rivers.  In  such  lakes  the 
windlass  dredge  is  sometimes  used  to  a  good  advantage. 
A  windlass  similar  to  a  well  windlass,  only  larger,  is  built 
upon  a  large  boat,  and  the  boat  should  be  anchored  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  mussel  bed.  The  dredge  bar  is  attached 
to  the  windlass  by  a  long  rope.  Then  a  small  boat  takes 


USING  THE  CROW-FOOT  DREDGE  129 

the  dredge  up  stream  and  lets  it  down  upon  the  mussel 
bed,  and  a  man  winds  the  rope  upon  the  windlass,  thus 
bringing  the  dredge  bar  over  the  mussel  bed  back  to  the 
boat.  While  this  method  is  not  used  generally  it  is  of 
special  value  in  some  places. 

The  information  in  regard  to  the  crow-foot  dredge  will 
be  of  service  and  value  to  all  pearl  hunters  who  wish  to 
use  the  methods  which  are  recommended. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

THE  DIP  NET  AND  ITS  USE. 

\ 

WHEN  the  dip  net  was  introduced  in  Peoria 
Lake  in  1911,  a  valuable  appliance  was  added 
to  the  pearl  hunter's  equipment.  The  other 
appliances  were  failures  in  Peoria  Lake,  and  as  soon  as 
the  usefulnes  of  the  dip  net  was  demonstrated,  all  other 
implements  were  thrown  away  and  are  now  rusting  on 
the  shore  of  the  Illinois  River,  north  of  Peoria.  The  dip 
nets  have  become  very  popular  there  and  will  probably 
come  into  general  use  in  many  other  localities  -as  soon 
as  their  merits  become  known.  The  new  appliance  has 
some  very  good  features.  It  will  gather  all  of  the  shells, 
regardless  as  to  whether  they  are  opened  or  closed,  while 
the  crow-foot  dredge  can  only  catch  the  ones  that  are 
opened.  Then,  too,  it  is  probable  that  a  dredge  hook 
may  sometimes  pull  a  pearl  from  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  shell  and  lose  it  in  the  mud  without  even  catching 
the  mussel.  The  dip  net  works  on  another  principle  and 
is  not  liable  to  such  a  fault.  If  a  mussel  contains  a 
pearl  it  is  very  likely  to  be  taken  whether  the  shells  are 
closed  or  not.  Another  good  thing  in  favor  of  the  dip 
net  is  that  it  can  be  used  where  there  is  no  current.  Some 
very  fine  shells  and  pearls  are  found  in  the  quiet  lakes 


130 


l\J 

H 

O 
•5' 


132  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

where  the  conditions  are  especially  favorable  for  the  use 
of  the  dip  net. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Henry  Gatlin  two  views 
were  supplied.  One  of  these  is  the  good  view  of  the  dip 
net  shown  in  Fig.  32. 

The  dip  net  consists  of  a  steel  hoop  which  is  flat  below 
and  with  a  rather  round  top.  The  lower  part  of  the  hoop 
is  bent  slightly  downward,  and  a  number  of  pointed  steel 
teeth  are  riveted  to  it.  The  bridle  rope  is  fastened  to  the 
dip  net  by  some  iron  rings  on  the  sides  of  the  hoop.  The 
teeth  of  this  dip  net  are  six  inches  long.  The  hoop  is 
twenty-four  inches  wide  and  the  net  is  about  one  yard 
long,  and  is  made  of  number  96  marlin.  The  size  of  the 
meshes  in  the  net  are  two  inches  to  comply  with  the  fish 
laws  of  the  State  of  Illinois.  The  steel  frame  of  the 
dip  net  is  bolted  to  a  strong  wooden  pole,  eighteen  feet 
long.  The  dip  nets  are  of  various  sizes.  The  sizes  de- 
pend upon  the  size  of  the  engine  in  the  boat,  which  is 
to  pull  the  dip  net.  There  is  no  set  rule  as  to  the  sizes. 
Some  of  the  boats  have  three  and  one-half  or  four  horse- 
power engines  in  them  and  pull  small  dip  nets,  but  most 
of  the  boats  have  engines  of  more  than  seven  horse- 
power, and  even  that  much  power  is  considered  3mall 
for  the  work.  Many  of  the  engines  are  ten  and  twelve, 
while  some  have  eighteen  or  twenty  horsepower  motors 
in  them.  The  larger  are  much  better  as  they  can-  draw  a 
larger  load  and  go  faster  and  collect  more  shells.  An- 
other advantage  of  speed  is  that  the  mussels  roll  into 
the  back  part  of  the  net,  thus  making  the  appliance  work 
more  perfectly. 


THE  DIP  NET  AND  ITS  USE  133 

The  pearl  hunter  who  uses  the  smallest  engine  cannot 
go  so  fast  or  gather  so  many  shells  as  the  ones  who  use 
large  engines,  yet  he  may  be  the  lucky  one  and  bring  up 
a  shell  which  contains  a  very  valuable  pearl. 

There  is  a  slight  difference  in  the  points  of  the  steel 
teeth.  Some  have  round  points,  while  other  are  flat. 
Some  men  prefer  the  flat  pointed  teeth  and  say  the  shells 
do  not  become  wedged  between  the  teeth  so  much  as 
when  the  points  are  round.  The  style  of  the  points  does 
not  make  any  difference  in  the  cost  of  the  work.  The 
cost  of  the  dip  nets  depends  upon  the  size  needed.  The 
steel  frames  with  three-inch  teeth,  cost  about  $2.50  for 
the  fourteen-inch  size.  The  eighteen-inch  frames,  with 
three-inch  teeth,  cost  about  $3.25.  The  twenty-four-inch 
frames,  with  three-inch  teeth,  cost  about  $4.00.  The 
thirty-inch  frames,  with  three-inch  teeth,  cost  about  $4.50. 
Any  of  these  sizes  can  be  made  with  six-inch  teeth  by 
adding  fifty  cents  to  the  prices  mentioned. 

A  photograph  of  the  dip  net  in  use  is  shown  in  Fig. 
33,  and  was  very  kindly  loaned  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  John 
Stockfleth,  of  Peoria,  Illinois.  The  man  who  is  guiding 
the  boat  is  Mr.  George  Stockfleth,  and  Mr.  C.  J.  Ragan 
is  holding  the  dip  net.  Both  men  live  in  Peoria. 

This  view  shows  how  the  dip  net  is  used.  The  net  is 
connected  with  the  bow  of  the  boat  by  a  strong  rope.  In 
this  case  the  rope  is  long  enough  to  reach  to  the  back  of 
the  boat  and  is  to  be  set  on  the  bottom  of  the  river  direct- 
ly back  of  the  boat,  while  the  outfit  is  intended  to  run  in 
a  line  directly  over  and  following  the  mussel  bed.  When 
pearl  hunters  know  the  position  of  the  mussel  beds  thor- 


134  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

oughly  this  plan  is  a  good  one,  but  one  has  to  be  very 
careful  to  keep  the  net  from  getting  caught  in  the  pro- 
peller. 

There  is  another  method  which  is  more  commonly 
used  in  which  the  rope  does  not  allow  the  net  to  go  back 
as  far  as  the  propeller  wheel.  The  boat  is  first  placed 
over  the  mussel  bed,  and  the  rudder  is  set  to  keep  the 
boat  in  a  circle.  The  dip  net  is  placed  in  the  water  on 
the  side  of  the  boat  that  will  put  it  inside  of  the  circle 
and  the  engine  is  started.  In  using  either  method  the 
operator  must  press  the  dip  net  downward  so  the  teeth 
will  dig  into  the  mud  in  order  to  catch  the  mussels.  When 
the  net  is  full  it  is  lifted  to  the  surface  and  splashed  into 
the  water  a  few  times  to  wash  out  the  mud  and  then  the 
mussels  are  emptied  into  the  boat. 

One  man  can  run  an  outfit  by  arranging  a  guiding 
lever  where  he  stands  so  he  can  guide  the  boat  with  one 
knee.  Many  of  the  boats  have  two  men,  though. 

Where  "shelling"  is  good  two  men,  or  one  man  and  a 
boy,  can  gather  nearly  a  ton  of  shells  in  half  a  day,  with 
a  boat  containing  a  strong  engine. 

Some  boats  are  rather  short  for  this  work  and  a  boom 
is  placed  on  the  bow  of  the  boat.  An  old  wagon  tongue 
costs  twenty-five  cents  and  answers  for  this  purpose  very 
nicely.  The  heavy  end  of  the  tongue  is  bolted  to  heavy 
timbers  at  the  bow  of  the  boat  and  the  rope  is  attached 
to  the  pole  cap  iron  at  the  end  of  the  tongue.  The  outfit 
is  then  long  enough  to  allow  the  use  of  a  longer  rope 
which  will  reach  to  the  bottom  of  the  river. 

The  dip  net  is  very  practical  where  the  water  is  not 


136  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

too  deep,  and  where  the  river  bed  is  free  from  snags ; 
but  it  cannot  be  used  in  very  deep  water  or  where  there 
are  snags  and  "hang-ups." 

The  operation  of  the  dip  net  is  easy  to  learn  and  after 
a  little  practice,  amateurs  become  very  successful  in  their 
use  of  it. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 
OTHER  METHODS  OF  PEARL  FISHING. 

THE  appliances  and  methods  which  have  been  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  chapters  can  be  used  in 
rather  deep  water,  but  the  implements  and 
methods  described  here  can  only  be  used  in  the  more 
shallow  waters.  They  might  properly  be  classified  as 
shoal  fishing  appliances  and  methods. 

One  of  the  most  important  tools  for  use  in  pearl  hunt- 
ing in  shallow  water  is  the  shell  tongs.  The  most  ap- 
proved style  are  the  Coke  Fork  Tongs,  which  are  made 
from  two  coke  forks.  The  points  of  the  tines  are  cut 
off  a  few  inches  from  the  ends,  and  the  forks  are  ironed 
and  riveted  together  something  like  scissors  are  joined, 
and  they  are  mounted  on  poles  of  any  length  desired. 
Vegetable  forks  may  also  be  used  in  making  shell  tongs, 
but  their  tines  are  farther  apart  so  they  are  not  quite  so 
serviceable  in  gathering  smaller  shells. 

There  is  another  implement  known  as  the  "Scissor 
Rake,"  which  is  similar  to  the  tongs,  except  that  rakes 
are  used  in  making  them  instead  of  forks.  They  are  not 
so  popular  as  the  tongs.  A  view  of  the  shell  tongs  may 
be  seen  in  Fig.  34. 

In  using  the  tongs,  the  pearl  hunter  moves  his  boat 
directly  over  a  portion  of  the  mussel  bed  where  the 


137 


138  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

water  is  shallow  and  the  mussels  are  most  abundant,  and 
anchors  the  boat.  Next  he  places  the  tongs  in  the 
water  and  with  one  handle  in  each  hand  he  works  the 
tongs  around  the  mussels  until  he  has  gathered  some  into 
the  implement,  and  then  raises  them  into  the  boat.  There 
is  nothing  certain  about  the  catch  being  all  mussels.  Some- 
times the  tongs  contain  rocks,  or  mussels  mixed  with 
rocks.  The  tongs  are  profitable  tools  when  used  in  suit- 
able places.  Some  pearl  hunters  have  made  as  much  as 
$15.00  in  one  day  working  in  some  of  the  northern  rivers. 

Thev  have  also  been  in  very  popular  use  in  the  south. 
In  some  parts  of  the  White  River,  in  Arkansas,  large 
numbers  of  boats  have  been  collected  together  in  a  very 
small  space,  where  the  pearl  hunters  used  the  tongs  to 
collect  the  shells. 

Another  good  use  for  tongs  is  in  fishing  for  mussels 
through  holes  cut  in  the  ice.  A  great  many  fine  pearls 
have  been  secured  by  using  this  method.  A  pair  of  tongs 
usually  costs  about  $3.50,  and  many  of  them  have  been 
made  by  the  blacksmiths  of  Muscatine,  Iowa.  The  use- 
fulness of  the  tongs  in  shallow  water  has  been  so  thor- 
oughly demonstrated  in  so  many  localities  it  will  continue 
to  be  a  very  popular  implement  among  the  pearl  hunters. 

The  fork  is  used  more  than  any  other  implement.  The 
one  shown  in  Fig.  35  has  a  remarkable  history  and  has 
probably  handled  more  shells  than  any  other  fork  in  ex- 
istence. 

Mr.  George  Platt,  of  Camanche,  Iowa,  bought  this  fork 
in  1898  in  Linxville,  Wisconsin,  where  he  lived  at  that 
time.  About  three  years  ago  Mr.  Charles  Newton,  of 


Fig.  34.     Shell  tongs.     Only  a  part  of  the 
handles  are  shown  in   the   photo. 


140  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

Peoria,  Illinois,  bought  the  fork  from  Mr.  Platt  and  has 
been  using  it  on  the  Wabash  and  Illinois  Rivers. 

It  has  been  used  continuously  since  it  was  purchased 
in  Linxville,  and  the  tines  are  now  badly  worn  under  the 
basket  part  of  the  fork. 

The  forks  are  used  generally  to  load  or  move  shells, 
but  in  times  of  low  water  they  are  used  in  a  method  of 
shell  gathering  which  is  commonly  known  as  "short  fork- 
ing." In  this  method  the  pearl  hunter  stands  in  the 
warm  water,  which  is  usually  up  to  his  waist,  and  uses 
the  fork  in  almost  the  same  manner  a  spade  is  used,  un- 
less the  rocks  are  too  great  a  hindrance.  As  soon  as  the 
fork  contains  some  shells  they  are  lifted  out  of  the  water 
and  the  stones  and  trash  are  taken  out  of  the  fork,  and 
the  mussels  are  thrown  into  the  boat.  " Short-forking"  is 
generally  done  in  July  and  August,  or  in  the  early  part  of 
September,  and  although  the  season  for  this  work  is  very 
short  in  almost  any  locality,  it  is  a  very  profitable  method. 
In  new  beds  it  is  possible  to  load  a  boat  in  a  very  short 
time.  Occasionally  in  the  older  fisheries  a  pearl  hunter 
finds  a  new  mussel  bed  and  is  able  to  load  several  boats 
and  hide  them  by  sinking  them  in  the  shallow  water  by 
the  side  of  a  good  mark  near  the  shore  before  the  others 
have  learned  that  a  new  mussel  bed  has  been  discovered. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  men  find  the  new  places  without 
much  delay.  If  a  pearl  hunter  stays  very  long  in  a  new 
location,  some  one  will  stop  to  see  if  shells  are  plentiful. 

Another  use  of  the  fork  is  in  the  method  known  as 
"long- forking,"  which  is  also  called  "shoulder- forking" 
in  some  localities.  In  this  method  the  fork  is  attached 


Fig.  35.    Shell  fork. 


142  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

to  a  long  pole  and  the  pearl  hunter  stands  in  an  anchored 
boat  and  presses  the  fork  down  among  the  mussels,  often 
using  the  side  of  the  boat  as  a  fulcrum  to  force  the  fork 
under  the  shells.  By  loosening  the  shells  and  shaking 
them  into  the  basket  part  of  the  fork  he  is  then  able  to 
raise  them  and  throw  them  into  the  boat.  The  long  fork 
is  also  used  in  fishing  for  mussels  through  holes  in  the 
ice,  in  which  case  the  ice  is  used  as  a  fulcrum.  In  using 
the  fork  for  "long-forking"  some  men  use  wire  and  build 
a  net  a  few  inches  above  the  fork,  which  adds  to  the 
capacity  of  the  basket  of  the  fork.  The  fact  is  the  best 
forks  for  this  use  do  not  have  the  proper  shape  to  do 
this  kind  of  work  as  well  and  as  easily  as  they  should.  It 
is  too  easy  for  the  mussels  to  roll  off  the  forks.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  some  manufacturer  of  forks  will  make  one 
which  will  be  more  efficient  and  easier  to  use.  The 
"long-fork"  method  is  a  very  successful  one  in  many 
places,  and  some  men  prefer  it  to  any  other  for  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year. 

There  is  another  appliance  that  is  used  occasionally 
which  is  known  as  the  shoulder  rake.  These  are  often 
a  plain  garden  rake  with  a  coarse  wire  net  attached  back 
of  the  teeth.  Others  are  larger  and  are  made  by  a  black- 
smith. In  using  the  shoulder  rakes  a  boat  is  anchored 
and  the  pearl  hunter  places  the  rakes  in  the  water  and 
gradually  pulls  it  toward  the  boat,  where  the  basket  is 
emptied.  The  shoulder  rake  is  also  used  to  fish  through 
the  ice.  It  is  not  an  important  appliance,  yet  there  are 
some  places  where  it  can  be  used  fairly  well. 

The  eagle-claw  clam  rake  is  very  popular  among  the 


OTHER  METHODS  OF  FISHING  143 


Fig.  36.     Eagle  Claw  Clam  Rake. 

clam  diggers  of  Long  Island.  The  rake,  which  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  36,  has  nine  teeth ;  they  are  bent  to  form  a 
large,  roomy  basket.  This  is  a  very  convenient  appliance 
to  catch  fresh-water  mussels  in  some  shallow  pools. 

The  rake  must  be  mounted  on  long  handles.  In  using 
this  rake  the  mussels  are  loosened  and  shaken  into  the 
basket  part  of  the  rake,  then  lifted  out  of  the  water. 

A  very  common  method  is  that  of  wading  into  the 
water  and  picking  up  the  mussels.  This,  of  course,  must 
be  done  in  the  summer  while  the  rivers  are  low  and  the 
water  is  warmest.  Under  some  conditions  it  is  one  of 
the  most  profitable  methods.  The  men  sometimes  make 
$10.00  to  $12.00  per  day  of  about  five  hours.  It  is  nec- 
essary to  wear  considerable  clothing  as  a  protection 
against  the  cool  water.  A  rubber  coat  is  needed  as  a  pro- 
tection against  the  wind,  which  is  nearly  always  blowing 
on  a  river.  The  mussels  are  picked  up  and  placed  in  a 
wy-e  basket,  or  an  old  bucket,  which  has  been  perforated, 
and  when  it  is  filled  it  is  emptied  into  the  boat,  which  is 
anchored  near. 


144  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

In  places  like  the  rapids,  near  Rapids  City,  Illinois, 
where  the  author  used  this  method  of  pearl  hunting  the 
running  water  is  rather  dangerous,  and  it  is  customary 
for  the  pearl  hunters  to  use  a  small  rope  about  thirty  feet 
long,  one  end  of  which  is  tied  around  the  man's  waist, 
and  the  other  end  is  tied  to  the  bow  of  the  boat.  There 
are  many  deep  places  there  and  it  would  be  impossible  to 
swim  back  to  the  anchored  boat  against  the  force  of  the 
water,  so  the  rope  is  a  good  safeguard,  and  especially 
so  when  one  is  working  alone.  Four  or  five  hours  is  a 
a  good  day's  work  in  the  water  and  the  work  should  be 
done  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day.  When  the  water 
is  cold  enough  to  make  one's  teeth  begin  to  strike  against 
each  other  it  is  not  safe  to  remain  in  the  water.  The 
method  is  not  a  very  desirable  one  and  not  used  much, 
except  where  fine  shells  are  found  near  the  factories 
where  they  bring  the  highest  prices,  or  in  other  places 
where  pearls  are  more  frequently  found,  such  as  Caddo 
Lake,  Texas.  The  methods  that  are  used  differ  accord- 
ing to  the  local  conditions.  A  method  that  is  good  in  one 
locality  will  often  be  worthless  in  another  place.  It  is  a 
good  plan  therefore  to  know  them  all  so  if  one  method 
fails  another  can  be  used  successfully. 


CHAPTER    XV. 
METHODS  OF  OPENING  SHELLS  AND  EXTRACTING  PEARLS. 

ONE  who  has  never  seen  a  mussel  opened,  and 
who  tries  for  the  first  time  to  open  the  shells  of 
a  mollusk,  finds  that  the  animal  holds  its  shells 
together  so  tightly,  he  is  liable  to  give  up  the  task. 

Most  animals  are  provided  with  some  special  means 
of  protecting  themselves  from  their  enemies.  In  this  in- 
stance the  animal  lives  in  a  strong  stone  house  and  is  pro- 
vided with  two  strong  muscles  known  as  adductor  mus- 
cles which  contract  and  close  the  doors  in  all  times  of 
danger. 

The  methods  which  are  employed  for  the  purpose  of 
opening  the  shells  of  the  mussels  are  not  the  same  in  all 
localities.  In  Scotland,  Germany  and  some  of  the  other 
foreign  countries  the  pearl  hunters  use  an  instrument 
made  especially  for  the  purpose.  This  appliance  has 
sharp  flat  points  which  are  inserted  between  the  shells  of 
the  mussel  and  then  a  lever  is  turned  which  causes  the 
shells  to  open  far  enough  to  see  if  they  contain  a  pearl. 
As  the  pearls  are  found  near  the  edge  at  the  posterior 
end  of  the  shells,  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  as  to  whether  the 
shell  contains  a  pearl. 

The  method  is  said  to  be  of  great  value  in  conserving 
the  supply  of  mussels,  as  those  which  do  not  contain 


145 


146  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

pearls  are  thrown  back  into  the  water.  The  system  is  not 
of  value  in  places  where  shells  are  gathered  in  large  quan- 
tities for  the  button  industry.  The  most  modern  method 
of  examining  shells  to  see  if  they  contain  pearls  is  in  the 
use  of  the  X-ray  in  the  Tuticorin  Fishery,  Ceylon.  By 
the  use  of  this  strong  light  the  pearls  can  be  located  in 
the  oysters  and  those  which  do  not  contain  pearls  are  re- 
turned to  the  water.  The  use  of  the  X-ray  for  this  purpose 
has  only  been  experimental.  It  is  not  likely  that  it  will  be 
used  to  any  extent  in  the  United  States  unless  pearl  hunt- 
ing can  be  developed,  through  scientific  methods,  to  such  a 
high  state  of  perfection  that  the  proportion  of  shells  con- 
taining pearls,  baroques  and  slugs,  might  be  large  enough 
to  warrant  the  use  of  the  electrical  machine.  A  very 
common  method  used  by  most  pearl  hunters  in  opening 
shells  which  have  the  appearance  of  containing  pearls  is 
that  of  inserting  a  thin  blade  between  the  shells  and  cut- 
ting the  adductor  muscles  of  the  mollusk. 

Nearly  all  of  the  "crippled"  shells  are  opened  with  a 
knife  and  it  is  a  very  pleasant  experience  to  open  a  "crip- 
pled" mussel  and  find  a  valuable  pearl  inside  of  it. 

While  a  few  are  opened  with  knives,  practically  all  of 
the  shells  which  are  gathered  in  our  northern  rivers  are 
opened  by  "cooking  out,"  or  "boiling  out,"  as  it  is  called 
in  some  places.  The  large  quantities  of  shells  which  are 
required  for  the  manufacture  of  pearl  buttons  makes  it 
necessary  to  use  a  method  by  which  the  shells  can  be 
opened  without  the  loss  of  time.  While  the  large  quan- 
tity of  buttons  are  a  necessity  to  the  people,  the  killing 
of  such  large  numbers  of  mussels  is  a  cause  for  regret. 


OPENING  SHELLS  AND  EXTRACTING  PEARLS       147 

When  the  mussels  are  brought  from  the  fisheries,  the 
pearl  hunter  uses  the  fork  and  forks  them  out  of  the 
boat  into  a  shell  box.  These  shell  boxes  are  usually  six- 
teen inches  square  inside,  and  hold  one  hundred  pounds., 
or  more,  of  the  mussels.  They  are  strong  but  light  and 
are  carried  between  two  poles  about  five  feet  in  length 
which  are  securely  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  boxes. 

When  the  box  is  rilled  two  men  carry  it  and  empty  the 
mussels  into  the  cooking  vat  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig. 
37.  The  vat  is  built  of  broad  heavy  boards  made  into  a 
box  about  five  feet  long  and  about  two  feet  wide  and  one 
foot  deep.  The  bottom  is  a  large  piece  of  galvanized 
sheet  iron,  which  is  nailed  to  the  boards  and  which  is 
longer  than  the  box  at  both  ends  so  that  the  projecting 
ends  of  the  sheet  iron  protects  the  ends  of  the  vat  from 
the  fire  which  burns  in  the  furnace  under  it.  The  vat  is 
placed  on  the  bank  on  an  elevation  which  is  not  liable  to 
the  overflow  of  the  river  and  is  mounted  on  two  low. 
level  walls  of  bricks  or  stones,  and  afterward  dirt  is 
thrown  around  to  fill  in  any  open  places  in  the  walls. 

The  chimney  is  made  at  the  upper  end,  the  lower  end 
of  the  chimney  being  set  on  the  edges  of  some  stones  and 
other  rocks  and  dirt  filled  in  around  it. 

Several  joints  of  stove  pipe  make  a  good  chimney,  and 
if  an  elbow  is  placed  loosely  on  it  is  a  good  thing  to  use 
in  windy  weather,  as  the  elbow  can  be  turned  away  from 
die  wind,  thus  increasing  the  draft  of  the  furnace. 

When  the  vat  is  filled  with  shells,  about  two  buckets  of 
water  are  thrown  into  the  vat  and  the  mussels  are  cov- 
ered with  a  piece  of  old  carpet  or  some  other  cover,  then 


148  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

a  fire  is  built  under  the  vat.  The  fuel  used  is  generally 
dried  drift-wood.  In  a  short  time  the  shells  open  and  the 
fork  is  used  to  throw  them  upon  the  shell  sorting  table, 
shown  in  Fig.  37.  The  water  which  remains  in  the  vat 
is  usually  strained  through  a  piece  of  wire  screen  to  se- 
cure any  pearls  or  slugs,  that  might  happen  to  be  in  the 
water.  During  the  process  of  "cooking  out,"  the  vat 
should  not  get  dry  as  it  would  ruin  any  pearls,  baroques 
or  slugs  that  may  be  in  it.  It  is  not  desirable  to  use  much 
water,  however,  as  it  requires  a  longer  time  to  ucook 
out"  when  too  much  water  is  used,  although  there  should 
always  be  enough  to  cover  the  bottom  of  the  vat.  The 
shells  must  be  allowed  to  cool  gradually.  Throwing  cold 
water  on  the  hot  mussels  is  liable  to  crack  any  pearl  that 
may  be  among  them. 

The  sorting  table  is  usually  about  five  or  six  feet  long 
by  two  and  a  half  feet  wide,  with  boards  at  the  back  and 
ends  to  keep  the  mussels  from  falling  of!  the  table.  They 
are  usually  made  of  cheap  material  and  are  high  enough 
to  sort  the  shells  conveniently. 

Experienced  pearl  hunters  often  find  pearls  before  the 
mussels  are  "cooked  out,"  but  some  escape  their  notice, 
so  the  cooked  mussels  are  likely  to  contain  pearls,  ba- 
roques and  slugs.  Great  care  is  exercised  in  searching 
the  meats  in  order  to  save  all  valuable  pieces.  The  clean- 
ed shells  are  thrown  over  the  table  on  the  shell  pile.  In 
examining  the  meat  for  pearls,  the  senses  of  sight  and 
feeling  are  used.  Many  valuable  pieces  may  be  seen,  but 
it  is  necessary  to  feel  of  the  meats  in  order  to  find  all  of 
the  pearls,  baroques  and  slugs.  Nearly  all  pieces  found 


o 

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150  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

in  shells  have  some  value,  yet  the  very  smallest  pieces 
which  are  not  much  larger  than  a  grain  of  sand  are  not 
of  sufficient  value  to  bother  with.  Many  people  spend 
too  much  time  in  trying  to  separate  these  tiny  pieces 
from  the  meats.  Searching  for  these  smaller  pieces  is  often 
the  cause  of  eye-strain,  which  is  the  cause  of  many  dis- 
eases of  the  nervous  system.  While  it  is  not  profitable  to 
collect  the  very  smallest  pieces,  great  care  should  be  ex- 
ercised to  secure  all  pearls,  baroques  and  slugs. 

The  meats  should  be  kept  wet  in  order  to  find  all  the 
pearl  pieces  easily. 

There  is  one  very  offensive  method  that  consists  of 
placing  meats  in  barrels  and  allowing  them  to  decompose 
in  the  sun.  The  mixture  is  usually  stirred  about  once  a 
day  until  it  is  sufficiently  rotten  to  be  passed  through  a 
seive,  which  holds  the  pearls,  baroques  or  slugs  that  were 
in  the  meats.  The  strong  odor  from  the  decayed  mussels 
is  very  loathsome.  It  is  an  old  Oriental  method  which 
should  not  have  been  introduced  in  the  United  States. 
Fortunately,  however,  there  are  only  a  few  who  use  the 
system  here. 

Of  the  various  plans  for  opening  shells,  the  most  pop- 
ular one  is  the  "cooking  out"  method. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 
WHY  TRAPPERS  MAKE  GOOD  PEARL  HUNTERS. 

WHENEVER  pearls  are  found,  and  especially 
when  they  are  found  in  rivers  that  have  not 
been  known  as  pearl  streams,  the  newspaper 
reporters  usually  write  exaggerated  and  sensational  ac- 
counts of  the  "finds." 

The  occupation  of  pearl  hunting  is  pictured  in  glowing 
colors  and  many  people  leave  valuable  positions  to  enter 
the  new  work,  which  appears  to  be  so  fascinating  and 
full  of  promise.  The  fact  is  that  many  people  become 
disappointed  in  the  work  of  pearl  hunting.  Some  men 
work  for  years  in  some  locations  without  finding  a  pearl. 
If  the  newspapers  would  only  print  the  things  which  are 
absolutely  true  in  regard  to  the  work,  there  would  be  less 
disappointment  among  those  who  enter  the  new  profes- 
sion of  pearl  hunting.  The  editors  are  not  to  blame  in 
most  cases  as  they  are  not  familiar  with  pearls  and  the 
conditions  of  the  shell  business  and  have  to  depend  upon 
others  for  their  news  items. 

Among  the  many  people  who  engage  in  pearl  hunting 
are :  Farmers,  stockmen,  farm  hands,  hunters,  trappers, 
fishermen,  tradesmen,  saw-mill  hands,  mechanics  and 
boys.  Of  course,  some  are  more  successful  than  others, 


152  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

their  success  depending  considerably  upon  their  industry 
and  their  qualifications  for  the  work. 

The  pearl  hunter's  occupation  is  unlike  many  other 
kinds  of  employment.  The  selection  of  a  pearl  fishery 
and  the  examination  of  the  shells  for  pearls,  baroques 
and  slugs  are  the  two  most  important  parts  of  the  work, 
and  in  order  to  do  these  things  properly,  it  requires  good 
eyes,  close  observation  and  quick  perception. 

Of  the  men  who  engage  in  pearl  hunting,  none  have 
such  good  qualifications  as  the  hunter  and  trapper. 

The  successful  hunter  or  trapper  who  enters  the  work 
has  the  advantage  of  his  previous  training  to  help  him  in 
the  new  enterprise.  It  is  very  natural  for  a  hunter  or 
trapper  to  be  a  careful  observer.  As  he  goes  along  noth- 
ing can  escape  his  observation  and  what  he  sees  and 
hears  he  accounts  for  immediately.  The  faculty  of  ob- 
servation is  very  highly  developed  in  some  hunters  and 
trappers.  An  instance  which  shows  the  ability  of  hunt- 
ers and  trappers  has  been  told  of  a  Western  hunter  who 
was  acting  as  a  guide  for  a  hunting  party.  At  one  time 
they  came  across  the  track  of  an  Indian  pony,  which  the 
guide  followed  for  a  short  time  and  then  said :  "It  is  a 
stray  black  horse  with  a  long  bushy  tail.  It  is  nearly 
starved  to  death,  has  a  split  hoof  of  the  left  fore-foot, 
and  goes  very  lame,  and  he  passed  here  early  this  morn- 
ing." The  hunting  party  were  very  much  astonished  and 
asked  him  his  reasons  for  knowing  these  particulars  by 
the  tracks  of  the  animal,  when  he  replied :  "It  was  a  stray 
horse  because  it  did  not  go  in  a  direct  line ;  his  tail  was 
long  for  he  dragged  it  over  the  snow ;  in  brushing  against 


TRAPPERS  AS  PEARL  HUNTERS  153 

a  bush,  he  left  some  of  his  hair,  which  shows  its  color. 
He  was  very  hungry,  for,  in  going  along,  he  has  nipped 
at  these  high,  dry  weeds,  which  horses  seldom  eat.  The 
fissure  of  the  left  fore-foot,  also,  left  its  track,  and  the 
depth  of  the  indentations  shows  the  degree  of  his  lame- 
ness ;  and  his  tracks  show  he  was  here  this  morning  when 
the  snow  was  hard  with  frost."  Many  people  notice  the 
things  they  see  or  hear,  although  none  have  attained  such 
a  high  degree  of  proficiency  in  observing  as  the  hunters 
and  trappers,  with  the  possible  exception  of  detectives, 
who  have  had  long  training  and  experience  in  their  work, 
and  they  are  also  much  more  efficient  if  they  have  had 
experience  as  hunters  or  trappers  when  they  were  young. 

Hunters  and  trappers  are  also  very  familiar  with 
the  nature  of  the  streams  in  the  vicinity  where  they  live. 
There  is  scarcely  a  foot  of  land  which  they  do  not  know 
thoroughly ;  and  they  have  set  their  traps  in  the  edges 
of  the  pearl  streams.  They  can  remember  just  where  the 
muskrats  or  raccoons  have  carried  mussels  for  food  and 
left  the  small  empty  shells  lying  on  the  bank. 

A  large  per  cent,  of  the  pearls  that  \iave  been  found 
in  the  United  States  were  found  by  hunters  and  trappers. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  success  of  hunters  and  trappers 
the  case  of  Mr.  Charles  Newton,  of  Peoria,  Illinois,  is 
given.  Mr.  Newton  has  hunted  and  trapped  all  his  life 
and  spends  his  winters  on  a  good  trap  line.  During 
the  pearl  fishing  season  in  the  Peoria  District  last  sum- 
mer he  found  five  valuable  pearls,  which  were  sold  at  the 
following  prices:  First,  $80.00;  second,  $100.00;  third, 
$450*00;  fourth,  $1,100.00;  fifth,  $65.00;  the  total  being 


154  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

$1,795.00  for  pearls,  and  in  addition  to  this  sum  he  re- 
ceived money  for  the  shells  which  he  gathered,  and  also 
some  for  the  slugs,  which  he  found.  He  used  the  dip  net 
which  is  so  popular  in  the  Peoria  District.  These  five 
pearls  were  found  within  one-half  mile  of  Mossville, 
which  is  ten  miles  north  of  Peoria,  Illinois.  Many  of  the 
pearl  hunters  who  worked  in  the  Peoria  District  found 
pearls,  but  Mr.  Newton's  experience  is  an  exception. 
Amateur  pearl  hunters  should  not  base  their  expectations 
upon  his  fortunate  experience  as  it  does  not  represent 
the  average  results  from  pearl  hunter's  efforts. 

One  reason  why  the  occupation  of  pearl  hunting  should 
appeal  to  trappers  is  because  it  can  be  followed  when 
trapping  is  out  of  season. 

In  referring  to  the  hunters  and  trappers  and  .their 
especial  qualifications  for  pearl  hunting  it  should  be  stated 
that  while  they  are  favored  in  various  ways,  there  are 
many  others  who  are  very  successful  in  the  work.  Fish- 
ermen are  often  very  fortunate  in  the  work.  They  too 
have  valuable  river  experiences  which  are  a  help  to  them. 
Every  one  has  an  opportunity  to  find  valuable  pearls  if 
they  hunt  for  them  industriously. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

Tn i£  PARTICULAR  KIND  OF  "CRIPPLED''  SHELL  THAT 
YIELDS  THE  PEARL. 

PEARLS  are  found  in  various  molluscan  shells,  but 
the  ones  of  the  greatest  beauty  and  value  are 
found  in  shells  which  have  irridescent  interior 
layers.  Of  the  shells  which  have  the  pearly  interior  the 
most  important  are  the  Aviculadae,  Mytilidae,  and  the 
Unionidae. 

The  first  two  groups  are  marine  shells,  while  the  last  is 
the  fresh-water  group  which  are  found  in  the  rivers  of 
many  lands  and  are  most  abundant  in  our  country. 

In  the  marine  mollusks,  or  oysters,  the  two  valves  are 
not  of  the  same  size  and  shape.  The  normal  valves  of 
fresh-water  mussels,  however,  are  of  the  same  size  and 
shape  and  very  seldom  contain  pearls  of  value,  although 
in  rare  instances  very  fine  perfect  pearls  have  been  found 
in  them. 

The  fine  pearls  are  usually  found  in  what  are  known  as 
"crippled"  shells.  There  are  no  two  "cripples"  that  ^re 
precisely  the  same  in  size  and  shape,  yet  there  are  two 
distinct  classes  of  them,  which  may  be  termed  as  the 
worthless  "cripples"  and  the  valuable  "cripples." 

The  "crippled"  shells  have  an  abnormal  appearance. 
Such  mussels  have  a  long  convex  elevation  on  the  ex- 


155 


PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 


Fig.  38.     Exterior  View  of  the  Worthless  "Cripple." 

terior  of  one  valve  and  a  corresponding  long  concave  de- 
pression on.  the  exterior  of  the  other  valve.  These  pecu- 
liar distortions  are  the  largest  and  most  distinct  at  the 
outside  edge  of  the  posterior  or  thin  end  of  the  shell. 
Both  marks  lead  across  the  shells  toward  the  umboes, 
or  beaks,  gradually  becoming  smaller  and  less  distinct 
as  they  reach  the  older  parts  of  the  valves.  The  eleva- 
tion is  sometimes  called  a  "deerhorn."  These  misshaped, 
or  distorted  shells  are  scarce,  the  valuable  "cripples"  be- 
ing much  rarer  than  the  worthless  ones. 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  give  a  description  of  the  two 
different  classes  of  "cripples,"  which  will  be  sufficiently 
plain  to  show  the  difference  between  them. 

For  this  reason  four  photographs  are  supplied,  which 
illustrate  the  two  classes  of  "cripples/'  These  are  shown 


"CRIPPLED''    SHELLS   THAT   YIELD    PEARLS       157 


Fig.   39.     Exterior   View   of   the   Valuable   "Cripple,"   which 
Yields  the   Pearl. 

in  two  sets.  One  set  illustrates  the  exterior  of  the  shells, 
while  the  other  set  shows  the  interior  of  the  same  shells. 

The  shells  which  are  illustrated  are  taken  from  the  au- 
thor's collection  of  "cripples,"  which  he  has  gathered  in 
his  work  as  a  pearl  hunter  in  various  localities.  The  val- 
uable one  was  found  by  him  in  the  Illinois  River,  about 
one  mile  south  of  Florence,  Illinois,  and  contained  a 
beautiful  low-button  pearl,  which  weighed  eleven  grains. 
In  Fig.  41,  the  arrow  indicates  the  socket  in  which  the 
pearl  was  found.  The  shells  which  contain  sockets  are 
very  rare.  Most  pearls  rest  in  the  folds  of  the  mantle 
or  against  the  smooth  surface  of  the  nacre. 

In  the  views  which  show  the  exterior  of  the  shells,  the 
two  parts  of  each  shell  are  in  juxtaposition,  while  the 


158 


PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 


anterior  or  heavy  ends  of  the  shells  are  at  the  right  side 
of  the  illustration  and  the  posterior  or  thin  ends  of  the 
shells  are  at  the  left. 

Fig.  38  shows  the  exterior  of  the  worthless  "cripple." 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  elevation,  or  "deerhorn,"  *  is 
on  the  upper  shell,  while  in  the  case  of  the  valuable 
"cripple,"  shown  in  Fig.  39,  the  "deerhorn"  is  on  the 
lower  shell. 

Amateurs  should  study  these  photographs  very  care- 


Fig.  40.     Interior  View  of  the  Worthless  "Cripple." 


"CRIPPLED"    SHELLS   THAT   YIELD   PEARLS       159 


Fig.  41.     Interior  View  of  the  Valuable  "Cripple,"  which  Yields 
the   Pearl. 

fully  as  they  may  get  valuable  information  from  them 
which  might  otherwise  require  years  of  experience  in 
pearl  hunting  to  secure. 

The  interior  of  the  worthless  "cripple"  is  shown  in 
Fig.  40.  The  interior  of  this  shell  should  be  compared 
with  the  interior  of  the  valuable  "cripple,"  which  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  41. 

The  fine  pearls  which  are  taken  from  fresh-water  mus- 
sels are  usually  found  in  that  portion  of  the  shell  which 
is  indicated  by  the  arrow  in  Fig.  41.  This  portion  of  the 


160  FEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

shell  has  a  brighter  color  and  irridescence  than  the  rest 
of  the  shell  and  the  pearls  have  the  same  color  and  bril- 
liancy as  the  portion  of  the  shell  nearest  to  them  when 
found. 

Large  valuable  "cripples"  contain  large  pearls,  unless 
these  have  been  lost.  The  small  valuable  "cripples"  do 
not  contain  large  pearls,  although  they  often  contain  val- 
uable small  ones. 

The  pearls  which  are  found  are  not  always  valuable. 
Sometimes  a  large  distorted  shell  will  yield  a  very  imper- 
fect pearl.  While  the  valuable  "cripple"  evidently  con- 
tains a  pearl,  and  the  size  of  the  shell  and  the  distorted 
condition  are  indications  of  the  size  of  the  pearl,  there 
are  no  other  outward  indications  of  its  value. 

Often  a  small  distorted  shell  will  yield  a  pearl  of  great 
value.  In  extremely  rare  instances  the  worthless  "crip- 
ples" have  yielded  pearls,  but  they  were  small  and  of 
little  value.  It  seems  that  the  worthless  "cripple"  is  un- 
able to  hold  the  pearl  in  its  shells,  and  a  pearl  that  hap- 
pens to  start  growing  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  animal, 
becomes  lost,  although  the  irregular  growth  of  the  shell 
must  necessarily  continue,  gradually  decreasing  in  rug- 
gedness  and  distinctness  after  the  pearl  has  been  lost. 

The  winter  rest  lines  and  the  irregularities  of  the  ex- 
terior of  the  "crippled"  shells  often  tell  an  interesting 
story  of  the  mussel's  life.  The  worthless  "cripple," 
which  is  illustrated,  probably  held  a  pearl  for  awhile. 
The  deerhorn  on  the  exterior  of  the  original  shell  be- 
comes very  prominent  and  irregular  until  it  has  passed 
the  fifth  winter  rest  line,  while  from  there  to  the  edge 


"CRIPPLED"    SHELLS   THAT   YIELD   PEARLS       161 

of  the  shell  it  is  comparatively  smooth.  These  condi- 
tions indicate  that  the  pearl  was  lost  from  the  shell  dur- 
ing the  sixth  year  of  the  mussel's  life.  As  additional 
evidence  there  is  a  mark  on  each  shell  at  the  same  place 
between  the  fifth  and  sixth  winter  rest  lines.  The  marks 
indicate  that  the  mussel  sustained  a  slight  injury  during 
its  sixth  year.  This  was  possibly  caused  by  the  momen- 
tary intrusion  of  a  dredge  hook  which  may  have  assisted 
in  removing  the  pearl  at  the  time  it  was  pulled  from  the 
shell.  While  the  winter  rest  periods  are  not  plainly 
marked  after  the  sixth  year,  it  is  probable  that  about  five 
more  years  elapsed  before  the  mussel  was  taken  from 
the  water,  making  the  age  of  the  mollusk  eleven  years. 

The  two  shells  illustrated  are  about  the  same  size,  yet 
the  reader  will  observe  that  the  distortion  is  much  greater 
in  the  valuable  "cripple"  than  in  the  worthless  one. 
There  is  much  variation  in  the  "cripples"  which  are  found 
by  pearl  hunters,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  examine  and 
study  all  of  them  carefully. 

The  irregular  shapes  of  the  crippled  shells  are  probably 
caused  primarily  by  the  presence  of  some  parasite  inside 
of  the  shell  which  interferes  with  the  normal  secretions 
of  shell  forming  material. 

The  mantle  supplies  material  for  the  epidermis,  the 
middle  portion  of  the  shell  and  the  nacreous  lining.  A 
portion  of  the  mantle  may  be  wrapped  around  the  para- 
site, or  otherwise  removed  from  its  proper  position, 
which  would  interfere  with  the  normal  secretion  of  one 
or  more  of  the  three  shell  forming  materials.  It  is  probable 
that  a  part  of  the  material  which  should  be  used  to  build 


1 62  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

the  shell  is  used  to  envelop  the  foreign  object.  This  be- 
ing true,  the  part  of  the  shell  nearest  the  object  would 
not  receive  its  full  share  of  building  material  and  would 
therefore  become  dwarfed,  while  the  other  portions  of 
the  shell  receiving  their  full  shares  of  building  material 
must  be  distorted  to  meet  the  portion  which  has  not  re- 
ceived the  normal  amount  of  material.  The  fine  pearls 
are  found  in  a  number  of  different  shapes,  the  most 
valuable  one  being  the  perfectly  round  pearl.  This  shape 
appears  to  be  the  most  difficult  for  the  mussel  to  de- 
velop. 

Another  desirable  kind  is  the  pear  pearl.  These  are 
nearly  always  found  well  formed  and  it  appears  to  be 
much  easier  for  the  mollusk  to  roll  and  coat  them  prop- 
erly than  the  round  or  ball  pearls.  The  high  button  and 
low  button  pearls  are  usually  pressed  against  the  nacre 
of  the  shell  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  perfect  coat- 
ings of  nacre  from  being  applied  to  all  parts  of  the 
pearls. 

It  is  probable  that  some  of  the  larger  button  pearls 
were  once  ball  pearls,  but  on  account  of  their  increasing 
size  they  finally  became  pressed  against  the  shell  in  a 
manner  which  prevented  a  perfect  coating  of  nacre  so 
they  became  some  what  flattened  on  one  side,  and  in 
some  instances  two  sides  became  flattened  on  account  of 
the  pearl  touching  both  shells  of  the  mussel. 

There  are  also  other  pearls  which  resemble  eggs,  bar- 
rels and  other  objects. 

Most  of  the  pearls  which  are  found  in  the  "crippled" 


"CRIPPLED"    SHELLS   THAT   YIELD   PEARLS       163 

shells  have  some  imperfections.  The  faults  are  mostly 
caused  by  pressure  of  the  shells  against  the  pearls. 

While  the  "crippled"  shells  produce  most  of  the  pearls, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  perfect  ball  pearls  of  fine 
luster  are  occasionally  found  in  shells  that  are  normal. 
The  pearls  which  are  found  in  perfectly  normal  shells  do 
not  touch  either  shell  and  are  therefore  perfectly  round 
and  have  a  fine  luster.  Such  pearls  are  often  found  in  a 
sort  of  sack  hanging  inside  of  the  palaal  line  near  the 
gills. 

Mr.  Noah  McFadden  found  one  of  this  kind  in  the 
Illinois  River,  near  Meredosia.  He  sold  the  pearl  for 
$1,000.00.  The  pearl  was  perfectly  round  with  a  fine 
luster  and  weighed  twenty-seven  grains.  The  shells 
which  contained  the  pearl  were  perfectly  normal. 

While  the  perfectly  normal  shells  do  not  often  contain 
pearls,  the  gems  which  are  found  in  them  are  very  likely 
to  be  perfect. 

There  is  another  kind  of  "cripple"  which  produces 
baroques  and  slugs.  These  "cripples"  are  often  the  re- 
sult of  some  kind  of  accident,  in  which  the  shells  have 
received  some  injury.  Occasionally  a  mussel  becomes  in- 
jured in  a  manner  which  moves  one  valve  farther  for- 
ward and  the  teeth  are  broken  off.  Such  shells  often 
produce  a  large  number  of  slugs. 

Other  shells  become  wedged  between  solid  rocks  and 
grow  into  peculiar  shapes,  but  are  not  so  likely  to  yield 
slugs. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  the  mussels  may  be  in- 


164  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

j  tired  in  accidents  but  such  "cripples"  are  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  valuable  "cripples." 

Some  shells  which  do  not  appear  to  be  injured  contain 
nice  pearls,  baroques  and  slugs. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  LOCAL  CONDITIONS  UPON  THE  COLOR 
OF  SHELLS  AND  PEARLS, 

THE  American  fresh-water  pearls  have  gained  in- 
ternational fame  for  their  great  variety  of  fancy 
colors.  The  crowns  of  many  kingdoms  are 
adorned  with  one  or  more  of  these  precious  gems. 

The  cause  of  the  various  colors  is  something  which 
scientists  are  unable  to  explain.  The  subject  has  been 
very  sadly  neglected  and  probably  there  has  not  been  a 
real  need  for  the  knowledge. 

The  time  has  arrived,  however,  when  it  is  very  desir- 
able to  know  the  exact  causes  of  the  various  colors. 

Great  progress  has  been  made  in  the  science  and  art 
of  perpetuating  the  supply  of  valuable  mussels.  The 
growing  demand  for  fresh-water  pearls,  or,  sweet-water 
pearls  as  they  are  often  called,  will  make  scientific  pearl 
farming  a  profitable  occupation. 

It  is,  therefore,  very  important  to  know  the  influences 
which  are  the  causes  of  different  colors  in  pearls. 

A  single  fresh-water  pearl  which  has  a  brilliant  fancy 
color  is  a  valuable  gem,  but  such  a  pearl  is  usually  set 
alone  because  it  cannot  be  duplicated.  If  such  a  gem 
could  be  matched  perfectly,  the  value  of  both  pearl? 
would  be  greatly  enhanced. 

165 


1 66  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

The  pearl  fisheries  of  our  rivers  are  very  extensive,  yet 
it  would  be  very  difficult  to  find  two  colored  pearls  which 
are  alike  in  every  particular. 

The  pearls  from  the  Ceylon  fishery  are  nearly  alike  in 
color,  and  there  lore  jewelers  depend  upon  them  when 
they  wish  to  make  a  large  necklace.  This  is  a  valuable 
advantage  which  our  colored  pearls  do  not  have ;  yet 
scientific  management  may  help  to  overcome  this  diffi- 
culty by  supplying  a  system  whereby  pearls  of  any  color 
may  be  artificially  cultivated.  These  colors  are  not  a 
mere  matter  of  chance.  There  is  a  real  cause  for  every 
effect,  and  while  we  may  not  know  the  reason  why  some 
pearls  are  white,  while  others  are  green  and  pink,  there 
is  a  good  reason  for  it. 

Shells  which  are  white  in  one  river  are  pink  in  an- 
other stream ;  while  some  which  are  pink  or  purple  in  the 
headwaters  of  a  river  may  be  white  a  hundred  miles 
down  the  stream.  All  must  agree  that  there  are  some 
local  conditions  which  influence  the  color  of  the  shells 
and  pearls. 

In  the  summer  of  1910  the  author  gathered  shells  in 
the  Mississippi  River,  near  Port  Byron,  Illinois,  where 
he  sold  his  shells  to  Mr.  J.  F.  Normand. 

While  working  there  he  noticed  that  the  nigger-heads 
and  several  other  mussels  with  shells  having  white  nacre 
were  at  rest,  while  the  lady  fingers  and  several  others 
having  pink  nacre  were  always  feeding.  At  that  time  the 
Mississippi  River  was  lower  than  it  had  been  for  many 
years.  The  Northern  States  and  Canada  were  suffering 
from  a  very  prolonged  drought.  All  the  creeks  and 


COLOR  INFLUENCED  BY  LOCAL  CONDITIONS       167 

ponds  were  dry,  and  as  there  were  no  rains  it  is  mani- 
fest that  the  river  was  made  up  largely  of  spring  water 
then.  It  is  very  probable  that  a  chemical  analysis  of  the 
river  water  at  that  time  would  have  shown  a  larger  per 
cent,  of  minerals  than  could  be  found  at  other  times. 
This  condition  suggests  that  the  colors  of  the  shells  and 
pearls  may  possibly  be  caused  by  the  minerals  which  are 
in  the  running  water. 

The  colored  shells  are  also  smaller  and  lighter  than  the 
white  ones  and  probably  do  not  grow  so  quickly. 

Investigations  of  the  pearl  fisheries  of  the  various 
rivers  of  this  country  and  some  of  the  ocean  fisheries 
seem  to  justify  the  theory  of  the  mineral  origin  of  the 
colors  of  the  pearls  and  shells. 

Illinois  is  a  prairie  State.  The  rivers  are  fed  by  creeks 
and  other  streams.  There  are  large  coal  deposits,  but 
they  do  not  influence  the  colors  of  pearls,  except  where 
the  deposits  are  near  the  surface  and  exposed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  running  water.  The  Spoon  River,  in  Fulton 
County,  has  this  unfavorable  condition,  and  many  of  the 
pearls  have  a  dead  yellow  color,  which  is  very  detri- 
mental to  their  value. 

Minerals  are  scarce  in  Illinois,  and  the  shells  with 
white  nacre  predominate. 

The  rivers  of  the  State  of  Tennessee  have  yielded 
many  fine  colored  pearls.  A  large  number  of  these  were 
pink  and  red. 

Tennesse  produces  gold,  iron,  copper  and  marble.  The 
great  iron  belt  extends  5,400  square  miles  along  the 
Tennessee  River. 


'Q 


»• 

»•  • 

»• 


170  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

Some  nice  rose  colored  pearls  were  found  in  the  Ten- 
nessee River  in  Alabama,  which  is  a  great  iron  district. 

The  Cumberland  River  in  Kentucky  has  produced  some 
very  fine  pink  pearls.  Above  Cumberland  Falls,  The 
Unio  gibbosns,  or  lady-finger,  is  about  the  only  variety 
found,  and  the  shells  are  pink.  Farther  down  the  river 
the  color  of  the  shells  gradually  becomes  lighter,  but 
shells  are  not  taken  in  the  first  175  miles  of  the  river. 

From  Celina  down,  the  shells  are  whiter  and  larger 
and  "clamming"  is  carried  on  in  many  places. 

Kentucky  contains  deposits  of  iron,  gold  and  silver. 
Mineral  springs  are  abundant  in  the  hills.  Salt  is  also 
found  there. 

Some  very  fine  lavender  pearls  have  been  found  in 
Kansas.  This  State  produces  lead,  zinc  and  salt.  * 

Some  very  large  pink  pearls  were  found  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Arkansas,  in  the  Black  River,  which 
drains  the  Iron  Mountain  region  of  Missouri. 

Other  pink  pearls  were  found  in  Murphy  and  Walker 
Lakes,  both  of  which  are  known  to  contain  iron. 

The  pearl  fisheries  of  Wisconsin  have  produced  a  large 
variety  of  colored  pearls.  Among  them  are  pink,  red, 
bronze,  purple,  lavender,  and  peacock  green.  This  State 
ranks  high  among  the  iron  producing  States,  while  lead, 
zinc  and  copper  are  also  found.  The  State  also  has  valu- 
able mineral  springs. 

A  careful  comparison  of  the  colors  of  the  pearls  found 
in  the  various  localities  and  the  kinds  of  minerals  which 
are  also  found  in  the  same  places,  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  colors  of  pearls  depend  upon  the  kind  of  min- 


COLOR  INFLUENCED  BY  LOCAL  CONDITIONS       171 

erals  which  are  deposited  near  the  rivers.  The  evidence 
is  only  circumstantial,  hut  is  very  much  in  favor  of  the 
mineral  origin  of  the  colors  of  pearls.  From  the  infor- 
mation which  has  been  gathered  it  seems  as  though  the 
presence  of  iron  is  conducive  to  pink,  or  various  shades 
of  red.  Green  seems  to  come  from  copper,  while  the 
blue  or  lavender  may  be  derived  from  lead  or  zinc  or 
from  a  combination  of  these  minerals.  Possibly  the  mus- 
sels which  live  in  a  certain  stream  where  a  certain  kind 
of  mineral  is  abundant  gradually  become  accustomed  to  it 
and  feed  at  times  when  the  water  contains  a  large  per 
cent,  of  the  mineral. 

In  this  manner  the  dissolved  mineral  may  become  as- 
similated like  the  carbonate  of  lime  and  used  with  it  in 
the  construction  of  the  shells  and  pearls.  Farther  down 
the  streams  the  shells  grow  whiter,  which  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  the  minerals  which  were  in  the  water  near  the 
source  of  the  river  have  been  gradually  reduced  by  the 
addition  of  water  from  other  streams  and  to  some  ex- 
tent by  settling.  As  the  river  becomes  larger  the  erosion 
is  gradually  reduced. 

The  size  of  the  shells  seems  to  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  water.  This  is  illus- 
trated by  the  sizes  of  the  shells  found  in  different  parts 
of  the  Illinois  River. 

The  river  north  of  Peoria  is  enlarged  by  the  waters 
from  smaller  rivers,  which  carry  a  large  quantity  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  into  it,  and  the  shells  in  that  district  are 
very  large.  The  southern  portion  of  the  river  is  much 


172  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

wider  and  deeper  and  the  erosion  is  reduced  so  the  shells 
are  much  smaller. 

An  investigation  of  some  of  the  ocean  pearl  fisheries 
also  furnishes  some  information  relating  to  the  color  of 
pearls. 

The  pearls  from  the  Ceylon  fishery  in  the  Gulf  of 
Manaar,  off  the  east  coast  of  the  island,  are  of  a  rather 
uniform  creamy  yellow  color.  The  sea-coast  there  is 
even  with  a  low-land  plain  back  of  it.  The  only  moun- 
tains are  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  island, 
where  plumbago  and  precious  stones  are  found. 

In  the  pearl  fisheries  of  Lower  California,  where  the 
most  approved  diving  outfits  are  used,  pearls  are  found 
in  white,  pink,  blue,  green,  brown  and  black  colors.  The 
adjacent  land  is  mountainous,  while  the  mining*  region 
comprises  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  Mexico.  The 
minerals  found  there  are  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  plati- 
num, iron,  mercury,  tin  and  zinc. 

The  pearl  fisheries  of  Costa  Rica,  Panama  and  Co- 
lombia are  famous  for  their  black,  blue,  pink  and  green 
tinted  pearls.  These  countries  are  rich  in  minerals  and 
produce  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead,  platinum,  mer- 
cury and  zinc.  These  circumstances  seem  to  indicate  that 
local  mineral  deposits  also  have  something  to  do  with  the 
colors  of  the  ocean  pearls. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 
THE  LUSTER  OF  THE  PEARL — ITS  CAUSE  EXPLAINED. 

SINCE  the  earliest  records  of  the  pearls's  history, 
its  magic  charm  has  won  the  admiration  of  the 
people  of  nearly  every  land.  The  earliest  rulers 
and  conquerers  were  captivated  by  its  tender,  silky  luster 
and  from  their  time  to  the  present,  pearls  have  been  the 
most  important  gems  of  royalty.  Their  great  popularity, 
lasting  over  2,400  years,  is  the  very  strongest  recommen- 
dation for  the  pearl.  These  beautiful  gems  have  several 
attributes  which  make  them  valuable,  but  the  one  virtue 
which  charms  and  wins  the  people  of  all  times  is  their 
soft,  velvety  luster.  While  this  remarkable  silky  sheen 
is  so  greatly  admired,  the  cause  of  the  unusual  appear- 
ance is  not  immediately  obvious.  Fine  pearls  and  the 
portions  of  the  shells  in  which  they  are  found  have  this 
Oriental  radiance.  The  shells  consist  of  thin  layers  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  interstratified  with  animal  membrane. 
The  various  layers  of  nacre  follow  the  form  of  the  shell 
and  are  slightly  inclined  toward  the  surface.  This  pecu- 
liar structure  of  the  laminae  is  easily  discerned  in  the  pos- 
terior adductor  scar  of  the  shell,  where  the  edges  of  the 
strata  slightly  overlap  each  other.  The  tender,  delicate 
irridescence  can  be  plainly  seen,  yet  a  microscope  reveals 
the  full  glory  of  the  wonderful  creation,  where  the  ar- 


173 


174  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

rangement  of  the  reflecting  surfaces  of  the  curved  edges 
presents  an  endless  variety  of  beautiful  tints  and  colors. 
The  wealth  of  the  colors  in  the  arched  edges  artistically 
portrays  a  magnificent  rain-bow  or  reminds  one  of  the 
lavish  display  of  rich  colors  often  seen  among  small 
clouds  at  sunrise;  and  if  the  shell  is  moved  slightly,  a 
pretty  representation  of  the  aurora  borealis  may  be  seen 
in  the  unique  arrangement  of  the  laminae  of  the  adductor 
scar. 

Now  the  fact  is  that  while  the  shell  has  the  appear- 
ance of  being  composed  of  a  series  of  richly  colored  lay- 
ers of  nacre,  the  various  layers  are  about  the  same  and 
the  beautiful  series  of  colors  is  an  optical  illusion,  which 
is  known  as  the  phenomenon  of  interference.  The  word 
interference  is  the  term  employed  to  express  the. effect 
which  rays  of  light,  after  being  bent  or  diffracted,  pro- 
duce on  each  other.  The  large  number  of  narrow,  curved 
surfaces  which  are  in  the  adductor  scar  furnish  one  of 
the  best  examples  of  the  phenomenon  of  interference. 

The  pearl  is  also  composed  of  a  series  of  nacreous  lay- 
ers interstratified  with  animal  membrane,  but  the  pearl 
is  made  up  of  concentric  layers,  each  new  layer  com- 
pletely surrounding  those  already  made.  There  is  also 
another  difference  in  their  structure.  While  the  shell  is 
composed  of  three  distinct  parts,  the  conchioline  epider- 
mis, the  inner  prismatic  formation,  and  the  nacreous  lin- 
ing, only  one  of  these  three  materials  is  used  ordinarily 
in  the  formation  of  the  pearl,  this  one  being  the  nacreous 
material  which  is  used  in  making  the  lining  of  the  shell. 
This  material  is  the  finest  that  is  used  in  the  formation  of 


THE  COUNTESS  OF  STRADBROKE. 


176  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

the  shell  and  has  the  appearance  of  being  composed  of  a 
large  number  of  very  thin  wave  plates  slightly  over- 
lapping each  other  and  set  in  animal  membrane. 

The  layers  or  strata  of  the  pearl  are  not  always  regu- 
lar. Pearls  are  often  found  in  which  there  is  quite  a 
variation  in  the  stratification.  Some  layers  are  thicker 
than  others  or  have  a  spiral  formation  as  if  they  had 
been  made  by  rolling  the  pearl  in  the  nacreous  material. 

Pear  pearls  are  often  pearls  that  were  once  round,  but 
which  have  become  elongated  by  the  irregular  deposit  of 
nacreous  material.  Button  pearls  are  somewhat  flattened 
on  account  of  being  pressed  against  the  shell,  but  if  these 
become  loose  in  the  mantle  they  gradually  become  round. 

The  normally  formed  ball  pearl  is  composed  of  a  series 
of  layers  very  similar  to  the  structure  of  an  onion.  « 

In  Fig.  43  cross  section  views  of  an  onion  and  a  pearl 
are  shown  to  illustrate  their  similarity. 

The  arrangement  of  the  transluscent  strata  of  the 
pearl  are  such  as  to  cause  the  phenomenon  of  interfer- 
ence, but  not  in  just  the  same  manner  as  it  is  produced 
by  the  edges  of  the  strata  in  the  adductor  scar  of  the 
shell. 

In  the  drawing  of  the  pearl,  the  vertical  dotted  line  is 
intended  to  represent  a  ray  of  light  entering  the  trans- 
luscent layers  of  the  pearl. 

There  is  a  difference  in  the  circumference  of  the  vari- 
ous strata  of  the  pearl,  and,  therefore,  the  ray  of  light 
falls  more  obliquely  upon  some  layers  than  others.  As 
the  light  strikes  the  strata  at  various  angles,  it  becomes 
bent  or  diffracted,  and,  if  the  rays  meet  after  diffraction, 


THE  LUSTER — ITS  CAUSE  EXPLAINED  177 


Fig.  43.      This   illustrates   the   similarity   in  the   structure  of  the 

the  pearl  and  the  onion,  and  shows  the  manner  in  which 

rays  of  light  are  inflected  from  the  strata  of 

the  pearl,  thus  causing  the  luster. 

they  will  be  divided.  This  peculiar  inflection  of  .the  rays 
of  light  from  the  different  strata  of  the  pearl  is  another 
fine  example  of  the  phenomenon  of  interference. 

Some  pearls  are  so  extremely  translucent  the  light  can 
almost  pass  through  them,  and  these,  of  course,  present 
the  very  finest  degree  of  luster. 

The  perfectly  round  pearls  have  the  Ivst  luster  on  ac- 
count of  their  more  perfect  arrangement  of  strata  for 
producing  these  phenomena,  although  the  other  forms  are 
capable  of  inflecting  the  rays  of  light  and  have  beautiful 
radiant  lusters. 

The  soft  velvety  skin  of  the  pearl  increases  and  en- 
riches its  delicate  sheen. 


CHAPTER    XX. 
THE  CARE,  VALUE  AND  SALE  OF  PEARLS. 

THERE  are  some  things  which  relate  to  the  care, 
value  and  sale  of  pearls  which  many  amateur 
pearl  hunters  desire  to  learn.  The  care  of  pearls 
when  found  is  very  important,  as  these  gems  are  more 
liable  to  misfortune  than  the  other  jewels. 

All  the  "crippled"  shells  should  be  opened  without 
boiling,  if  convenient,  as  the  boiling  process  sometimes 
ruins  the  pearls,  especially  when  the  vat  becomes  dry. 
The  vat  should  be  cleaned  as  soon  as  the  mussels  are 
opened,  and  if  any  pearls  or  slugs  are  found  they  should 
be  allowed  to  cool  gradually.  The  pearls  should  be 
cleaned  by  washing  in  water  to  remove  any  adhering 
substance. 

When  pearls  are  carried  loosely  among  other  objects 
they  become  injured  or  scratched.  It  is  very  necessary 
to  prevent  friction  and  protect  the  lustrous  surface  of  the 
pearl. 

Many  pearl  hunters  wrap  them  in  cotton  to  prevent 
friction.  Pearls  which  are  allowed  to  dry  rapidly  are 
liable  to  check  or  crack,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  better 
to  keep  the  cotton  wrapper  damp.  Some  men  keep  their 
pearls  and  slugs  in  cotton  in  a  small  box,  with  a  glass 

178 


CARE,  VALUE  AND  SALE  OF  PEARLS  179 

cover,  such  as  jewelers  use  to  hold  the  works  of  a 
watch. 

There  are  some  commodities  which  are  so  regular  in 
price  and  so  continually  and  universally  in  demand  that 
the  price  is  uniform  and  all  know  the  value  of  the 
articles. 

The  value  of  pearls,  however,  is  influenced  hy  such  a 
large  number  of  conditions  and  combinations  it  is  impos- 
sible to  establish  a  standard  of  value  that  can  be  relied 
upon  in- all  cases.  The  value  of  pearls  depends  upon  the 
luster,  tint  or  color,  shape,  size  and  the  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. 

These  virtues  furnish  a  great  variety  of  intricate  com- 
binations, and  the  best  connoiseur  of  gems  is  often  con- 
fused as  to  the  exact  value  of  a  pearl.  The  great  va- 
riety of  colors  of  our  fresh-water  pearls  makes  the  prob- 
lem of  value  even  more  complex. 

In  addition  to  these  circumstances  the  fact  that  there 
is  no  other  pearl  just  like  the  one  to  be  valued,  makes 
it  impossible  to  be  guided  by  precedent,  and  then  as  a 
final  result,  the  buyer  and  seller  must  agree  on  a  price. 

Pearls  that  are  absolutely  perfect  are  very  rare  and 
bring  a  high  price.  Those  which  are  imperfect  do  not 
command  a  high  price  unless  they  are  nearly  perfect  or 
of  an  unusually  large  size. 

Pearls  are  classified  as  pearls,  baroques  and  slugs. 

The  ones  which  are  classed  as  pearls  are :  The  Round 
or  Ball  Pearl,  the  Pear  Pearl,  the  High  Button  Pearl, 
the  Low  Button  Pearl,  the  Egg  Pearl,  the  Barrel  Pearl 
and  the  Seed  Pearl. 


THE    MARCHIONESS  OF  LANSDOWNE. 


CARE,  VALUE  AND  SALE  OF  PEARLS  181 

The  Baroques  are :  The  Rose-Bud  or  Strawberry 
Pearl,  the  Turtle-Back  Pearl,  the  Biscuit  Pearl  and  other 
valuable  nuggets. 

The  Slugs  include :  The  Spike,  or  Hinge  Pearl,  and  the 
other  ordinary  formations,  and  the  smaller  pieces  called 
Chicken  Feed. 

The  various  kinds  of  fine  pearls  are  usually  graded  as 
large,  medium  and  small  pearls ;  a  large  pearl,  weigh- 
ing fifteen  grains  or  more  ;  medium,  five  to  fifteen  grains ; 
and  the  small,  under  five  grains. 

The  sizes  of  the  grades  given  here  are  not  always  used, 
some  dealers  using  other  gradations. 

One  buyer  offered  $30.00  per  grain  for  perfect  large 
ball  pearls,  and  $20.00  per  grain  for  perfect  medium 
pearls.  These  prices  are  too  low,  although  the  price  of- 
fered for  the  medium  size  of  perfect  ball  pearl  is  about 
as  good  as  buyers  usually  pay. 

The  most  valuable  one  is  the  large  perfect  ball  pearl, 
which  is  white  and  very  translucent.  The  value  of  these 
is  nearly  always  underestimated  and  pearl  hunters  do  not 
demand  enough  for  them.  The  large  perfect  ball  pearls 
are  in  great  demand  for  centers  of  necklaces  and  the 
value  of  pearls  weighing  more  than  ten  grains  increases 
very  rapidly  with  the  increase  in  size. 

The  other  forms  of  large  perfect  pearls  are  often 
nearly  as  valuable,  and  as  they  are  often  used  singly  in 
jewelry  it  is  not  so  important  for  them  to  be  white.  If 
they  are  perfect  they  may  have  any  bright  live  color  and 
be  of  great  value,  although  light  pink,  sky  blue,  and  pea- 
cock green  are  especially  desirable. 


1 82  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

The  egg  pearls  and  pear  pearls  are  generally  used  for 
pendants  and  for  scarf  pins. 

The  banded  pearls  do  not  command  a  high  price.  The 
band  is  usually  of  a  dead  color  and  generally  extends 
through  all  the  layers  of  nacre  so  nothing  is  gained  by 
"peeling." 

If  the  pearls  are  large  and  lustrous,  however,  they  are 
good  for  some  uses  and  have  a  value.  The  barrel  pearls, 
when  brilliant  and  perfect,  are  valuable,  although  the 
shape  is  not  so  desirable  as  the  others. 

The  yellow  fresh-water  pearls  are  usually  of  little 
value,  on  account  of  their  dull  or  dead  appearance,  al- 
though a  pearl  of  a  bright,  butter  cup  yellow  is  very  valu- 
able. 

All  light,  live  colors  permit  a  greater  translucency*  and 
consequently  have  a  better  luster.  , 

The  dense  colors  are  not  so  desirable,  although  per- 
fect black  pearls  are  very  rare  and  valuable. 

When  two  or  more  pearls  are  matched  in  size,  form, 
luster  and  color  or  tint,  their  values  are  greatly  en- 
hanced. 

The  pearls  forming  a  necklace  should  be  of  the  same 
luster  and  tint.  Very  few  realize  what  large  quantities 
of  pearls  are  necessary  to  match  a  long  necklace  of  them 
perfectly.  Besides,  great  skill  is  necessary  to  enable  one 
to  detect  slight  differences  in  tints  and  textures. 

Some  pearls  have  imperfections  which  can  be  hidden 
by  the  setting  and  while  they  are  not  worth  as  much  as 
the  perfect  ones  they  have  a  good  value. 


186  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

All  kinds  of  pearls  should  be  brilliant  and  lustrous  to 
command  the  highest  prices. 

Pearls  are  always  sold  by  the  grain.  This  standard  of 
weight  is  a  very  old  one  and  originated  in  India.  Small 
uniformly  round  seeds  or  grains  were  used  in  weighing 
pearls.  Later,  standards  for  this  weight  were  established, 
so  the  grain  is  used  exclusively. 

Fig  45  illustrates  an  assortment  which  includes  the 
Rose-Bud,  Large  Spikes,  Seed  Pearls,  Button  Pearl, 
Banded  Pearl,  Turtle-Back,  Egg  Pearl  and  Barrel  Pearl. 

The  Rose-Buds,  Biscuits,  Turtle-Backs  and  other  Ba- 
roques, when  large  and  lustrous  are  in  demand  and  sell 
as  high  as  $4.00  per  grain,  and  sometimes  even  higher, 
although  the  poor  grades  have  a  much  lower  value. 

All  Slugs  are  sold  by  the  avoirdupois  ounce.  The  very 
large  selected  pieces  that  are  clear  and  lustrous  and  nice- 
ly colored  sometimes  sell  as  high  as  $15.00  per  ounce. 

Fig.  46  shows  a  quantity  of  average  run  slugs  which 
sell  for  $3.00  per  ounce  on  the  Illinois  River.  Such  slugs 
are  worth  $2.50  per  ounce  on  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
$2.00  per  ounce  on  the  Maumee  River.  The  quality  of 
the  slugs  varies  in  the  different  fisheries.  The  color,  lus- 
ter and  quality  of  the  average  run  of  some  slugs  in  some 
localities  are  so  good  they  occasionally  sell  for  $5.00  per 
ounce.  The  chicken  feed  is  not  so  valuable,  but  some- 
times sells  for  $3.00  per  ounce. 

The  prices  that  have  been  mentioned  are  for  fresh- 
water Pearls,  Baroques  and  Slugs. 

The  value  of  the  pearls  found  in  the  various  rivers, 
exceeds  the  value  of  the  shells.  Most  of  the  pearls  are 


CARE,  VALUE  AND  SALE  OF  PEARLS 


187 


Fig.  46.     Some  "Average  Run"   Slugs. 

sold  to  pearl  dealers  who  are  usually  called  pearl  buyers 
on  the  rivers.  They  are  usually  shrewd  men  who  are 
very  skillful  in  buying  pearls.  Many  of  them  use  fast 
motor  boats  and  make  frequent  trips  up  and  down  the 
rivers  that  are  being  worked. 

The  large  jewelry  companies  do  not  often  buy  of  pearl 
hunters,  but  get  their  pearls  from  regular  dealers. 

There  has  been  some  talk  of  a  pearl  trust.  Some  odd  re- 
ports have  been  made  which  seem  to  indicate  that  such  a 
monopoly  exists,  yet  there  is  no  real  proof  of  it.  Sensa- 
tional newspaper  items  are  not  always  to  be  trusted, 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  there  is  no  pearl  trust. 

There  is  a  difference  in  buyers,  though.  Some  men  are 
more  conscientious  than  others  and  have  more  sympathy 
for  a  poor  man  so  they  pay  higher  prices  for  the  gems. 


1 88  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

There  are  some  buyers  who  do  not  know  much  about 
pearls  and  their  values.  These  men  often  buy  for  some 
other  buyer  and  their  lack  of  knowledge  of  pearl  values 
limits  their  offers  very  much.  Many  buyers  try  to  get  a 
pearl  hunter  to  promise  to  give  them  the  opportunity 
to  make  the  first  offer  on  any  pearls  they  may  be  fortu- 
nate enough  to  find. 

One  should  not  make  a  promise  of  this  kind  as  it 
places  him  under  obligations  to  the  buyer,  and  although 
another  buyer  who  is  more  liberal  in  his  dealings  may 
come  along,  the  pearl  hunter  is  in  honor  bound  to  with- 
hold the  pearl  until  he  has  fulfilled  his  obligation  to  the 
man  who  secured  his  promise. 

One  should  study  the  buyers  and  decide  which  man  is 
likely  to  ^ay  the  most  for  any  pearl  he  may  find,  although 
it  is  not  best  to  mention  the  decision  to  any  one,  as  the 
pearl  buyer  may  learn  of  it. 

When  one  finds  a  pearl,  the  less  he  says  about  it  the 
better,  and  it  is  not  a  good  plan  to  show  the  gem. 

The  man  who  pays  the  highest  prices  is  the  one  who 
should  have  the  first  opportunity  to  make  an  offer,  and 
if  a  satisfactory  deal  can  be  made  it  is  all  right  to  sell 
it  then. 

News  of  "finds"  and  the  prices  that  have  been  offered 
for  them  travels  very  quickly  along  the  pearl  streams,  so 
other  buyers  soon  know  of  the  pearls  and  the  prices  that 
have  been  offered  for  them. 

After  a  price  has  been  made  on  a  pearl  it  is  rather 
difficult  to  secure  /a  higher  price  from  another  buyer. 
This  seems  strange,  but  there  is  at  least  one  good  reason 


CARE,  VALUE  AND  SALE  OF  PEARLS  189 

for  it.  When  an  article  has  been  offered  for  sale  and  a 
dealer  refuses  to  pay  more  than  a  certain  known  price  for 
it,  other  buyers  who  have  learned  of  the  offer  naturally 
become  somewhat  conservative  and  do  not  care  to  offer 
a  price  which  another  dealer  has  refused  to  quote  be- 
cause of  the  business  risk. 

The  financial  condition  of  the  one  who  finds  a  pearl 
has  very  much  to  do  with  the  price.  It  is  a  deplorable 
fact  that  many  pearl  hunters  are  often  in  such  a  great 
need  of  money  that  they  sell  pearls  far  below  their  real 
value  rather  than  hold  them  for  a  better  price. 

Under  these  circumstances  perhaps  it  would  be  a  good 
plan  to  secure  the  assistance  of  a  storekeeper  or  banker. 
He  could  hold  the  pearl  and  supply  some  necessities  and 
money  and  later  the  two  could  sell  the  pearl  at  a  fair 
price  and  thus  prevent  a  loss. 

Pearl  hunters  are  entitled  to  every  consideration  and 
should  always  receive  the  highest  prices  for  their  gems. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
IMPERFECT  PEARLS  AND  How  TO  IMPROVE  THEM. 

MANY  of  the  fresh-water  pearls  are  imperfect. 
Some  of  the  imperfections  are  so  serious  the 
pearls  cannot  be  improved  sufficiently  to  bring 
much  on  the  market. 

Others  can  be  greatly  improved  through  easy  methods, 
and  can  be  sold  for  a  much  higher  price  than  they  could 
have  been  sold  for  without  the  improvement. 

Pearl  hunters  often  need  information  which  will  en- 
able them  to  improve  imperfect  pearls,  but  are  unable 
to  secure  it.  Some  buyers  know  of  various  ways  of  im- 
proving imperfect  pearls,  but  they  will  not  reveal  their 
me  thods  to  the  pearl  hunters. 

Perfect  pearls,  of  course,  do  not  need  any  improve- 
ment and  are  the  only  jewels  which  do  not  require  the 
services  of  skilled  men  to  prepare  them  for  use.  The 
high  value  of  pearls  is  an  incentive  to  improve  the  im- 
perfect ones  and  many  are  made  more  valuable  by  special 
treatment. 

Round  pearls  which  have  a  slight  flatness  or  a  flaw  on 
one  side  may  be  improved  by  drilling  through  the  de- 
fect, and  when  these  pearls  are  placed  in  a  necklace  the 
imperfection  cannot  be  detected  easily. 

Jewelers  also  conceal  such  faults  by  setting  the  pearl 


190 


IMPERFECT  PEARLS — How  TO  IMPROVE          191 

in  a  ring.  Another  method  is  to  remove  the  outer  lay- 
ers, although  this  plan  has  the  disadvantage  of  reducing 
the  size  and  weight  of  the  pearl.  This  method  is  known 
as  "peeling,"  and  is  an  important  system  of  improving 
imperfect  pearls  by  removing  one  or  more  of  the  outer 
layers  of  the  pearl.  This  is  usually  done  with  a  sharp 
knife,  but  it  requires  great  skill  to  do  the  work  nicely  in 
all  cases. 

Some  use  acid  for  "peeling,"  but  the  difficulties  ac- 
companying its  use  are  such  as  to  make  it  rather  imprac- 
tical for  those  who  have  not  had  experience  with  it.  The 
imperfect  pearls  which  are  to  be  treated  by  "peeling"  are 
known  as  "peelers." 

"Mud  spots"  are  commonly  found  in  fresh-water 
pearls  of  some  fisheries.  The  pearls  from  the  Illinois 
River  are  particularly  liable  to  these  defects.  The  "mud 
spots"  are  often  very  serious  imperfections.  The  spots 
have  a  dark  appearance  and  contain  mud  or  sand  and 
water.  Such  imperfections  often  cause  pearls  to  crack 
unless  they  are  removed. 

Pearls  containing  "mud  spots"  are  often  improved  by 
some  jewelers  by  concealing  the  imperfection  in  the  set- 
ting. It  is,  of  course,  very  unfair  to  sell  such  a  gem  with- 
out telling  the  customer  of  the  "mud  spot"  and  its  tend- 
ency to  make  the  pearl  crack.  Responsible  dealers  will 
not  permit  a  customer  to  make  a  purchase  under  the 
slightest  misconception. 

Some  pearls  have  a  rather  dead  yellow  color  when 
found.  If  this  color  extends  through  all  the  layers  of  the 
pearl  it  is  practically  worthless.  Very  often,  however, 


192  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

only  the  outer  layer  or  layers  are  dead  and  by  remov- 
ing them  a  beautiful  pearl  may  be  found.  There  is  no 
telling  what  color  of  gem  may  be  found  under  a  dead 
outer  stratum. 

The  cylindrical  pearls,  or  egg  pearls,  which  have  chalky 
bands  or  rings  around  them  should  not  be  peeled  as  these 
imperfections  are  generally  found  throughout  all  the  lay- 
ers of  the  pearls. 

The  jewelers  sometimes  conceal  these  faults  under  gold 
bands  in  the  jewelry  settings;  or  cut  the  pearls  in  two 
parts  and  use  them  for  ring  sets. 

The  "peeling"  of  pearls  often  results  in  disaster.  The 
imperfections  often  extend  to  the  centers  of  pearls,  so 
there  is  much  uncertainty  in  this  method  of  treatment. 

There  are  some  large  pearls  which  have  noticeable 
imperfections,  particularly  "mud  spots,"  and  it  is  a  seri- 
ous question  as  to  the  advisability  of  "peeling"  them. 
Perhaps  an  examination  of  such  pearls  with  the  X-ray 
would  enable  one  to  decide  the  question.  Sometimes 
pearls  have  a  slight  chalky  appearance  when  taken  from 
the  shell.  These  can  often  be  improved  by  allowing 
them  to  lie  in  olive  oil  for  a  few  hours.  There  are 
other  pure  oils  that  are  suitable  for  this  purpose,  but 
olive  oil  is  preferable.  This  method  is  known  as  "feed- 
ing" pearls.  In  this  plan  of  improvement  the  pearl  ab- 
sorbs a  slight  amount  of  the  oil  and  becomes  more  lus- 
trous, while  the  weight  is  also  slightly  increased. 

Pearls  that  are  worn  by  some  invalids  for  a  long  time 
sometimes  assume  a  dull  color  and  are  cabled  "sick 
pearls."  Long  ago  such  gems  were  fed  to  fowls,  which 


IMPERFECT  PEARLS — How  TO  IMPROVE  193 

were  soon  killed,  and  then  the  pearls  were  removed  from 
them.  A  plan  which  has  become  popular  is  to  let  servants 
wear  them.  This  often  improves  the  luster. 

When  the  outer  stratum  is  unusually  bad,  the  pearl  is 
improved  by  "peeling,"  although  the  next  layer  may  also 
be  imperfect.  Some  are  greatly  improved  by  experts 
who  use  secret  preparations  and  methods. 

Checked  pearls  are  very  common.  The  imperfections 
are  often  noticed  under  the  outside  strata  and  are  gen- 
erally caused  by  the  drying  out  of  the  inner  layers  of 
the  pearls.  They  are  rather  risky  to  keep  as  the  check  is 
a  serious  imperfection  which  is  liable  to  grow  worse. 
Such  pearls  do  not  command  high  prices. 

Baroques  are  always  imperfect  pearls.  They  are  often 
mounted  in  very  attractive  designs  which  represent  vari- 
ous figures.  Often  these  are  made  to  represent  the  bust 
of  some  famous  person  or  resemble  a  bird  or  animal. 
The  large  number  of  the  baroque  designs  are  only  lim- 
ited by  the  imagination  of  the  jewelers. 

Many  baroques  are  improved  by  scraping  away  dull  or 
dead  portions  of  the  gems. 

The  improvement  of  imperfect  pearls  is  sometimes 
done  in  an  unfair  manner.  Such  pearls  should  always 
be  sold  without  misrepresentation.  There  are,  however, 
honorable  and  legitimate  methods  and  pearl  hunters 
should  use  any  fair  system  to  increase  the  usefulness  and 
value  of  any  imperfect  pearls  they  may  find. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

IMITATION'S  AND  TESTS  FOR  DETECTING  THEM. 

LIKE  many  other  things  of  value,  pearls  have  been 
imitated.  Some  of  the  imitations  are  very  natu- 
ural  in  appearance,  while  others  are  very  imper- 
fect representations.  For  many  years  the  Chinese  have 
produced  artificial  pearl  objects  by  introducing  small  flat 
metallic  figures  between  the  shell  and  mantle  of  the 
Dipsus  plicatus,  a  large  river  mussel  of  that  country. 
The  figures  are  inserted  carefully  so  as  not  to  injure  the 
mussel,  which  is  returned  to  the  water. 

After  a  few  months  the  mussels  are  again  taken  from 
the  water  and  the  figures  are  found  to  be  covered  with 
pearly  nacre  and  are  attached  to  the  shell.  They  are 
then  removed  and  used  as  ornaments. 

The  Japanese  are  more  progressive  in  the  art.  They 
insert  small  porcelain  domes  inside  of  the  Avicula  Mar- 
tensii,  or  Oriental  pearl  oyster.  After  four  years  the 
oysters  are  taken  from  the  water  and  opened  and  the 
culture  pearls  and  the  natural  pearls  are  gathered  from 
•them. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Fred  Bahni,  of  Peoria, 
Illinois,  a  view  of  a  Japanese  culture  pearl  is  shown  in 
Fig.  47. 

The  low  domes  become  covered  with  layers  of  pearly 


194 


IMITATIONS  AND  How  TO  DETECT 


Fig.  47.     Japanese  Culture  Pearl  Attached  to 
an  Oyster  Shell. 

nacre  and  when  the  culture  pearls  are  separated  from  the 
shells  they  are  joined  to  other  domes  of  mother  of  pearl 
of  similar  shape  and  size.  They  are  then  mounted  in 
jewelry  in  such  a  manner  as  to  conceal  the  lower  mother 
of  pearl  portion.  The  Japanese  culture  pearls  have  a 


196  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

fine  tender  luster,  and  except  for  the  mother  of  pearl 
base  they  have  the  appearance  of  genuine  Oriental  pearls. 
Many  of  these  are  sold  in  this  country  to  those  who  do 
not  know  their  real  quality. 

The  Japanese  culture  pearl  is  not  entitled'  to  the  name 
of  pearl  because  it  is  formed  on  an  artificial  base,  and  a 
portion  of  it  is  artificial.  In  case  they  should  ever  be- 
come "sick"  they  cannot  be  improved  by  "peeling,"  as 
the  genuine  pearls  are  improved,  for  the  "peeling"  pro- 
cess would  expose  the  porcelain  dome. 

They  are  sold  as  Japanese  culture  pearls.  The  Japa- 
nese pearl  industry  is  located  in  the  Bay  of  Ago,  Prov- 
ince of  Shima,  on  the  Pacific  Coast  of  Central  Japan, 
near  the  famous  temple  of  Ise. 

If  a  system  of  pearl  culture  can  be  developed  in. which 
pearls  can  be  produced  through  the  natural  method,  us- 
ing parasites  as  nuclei  for  the  pearls,  such  pearls  would 
be  genuine  in  every  particular  and  should  be  sold  as 
pearls,  without  discount  or  apology. 

A  very  clever  imitation  has  been  recently  placed  upon 
the  market.  These  are  known  as  hard  pearls  and  are 
made  by  coating  a  series  of  hard  enamels  over  a  suit- 
able base.  The  system  of  building  up  the  pearls  from  the 
inside  with  each  strata  of  enamel  completely  envelop- 
ing the  layers  already  formed  is  very  similar  to  the  nat- 
ural growth  of  pearls. 

The  enamels  which  are  used  for  this  purpose  are  com- 
pounds of  glass  with  different  metallic  oxides  which  pro- 
duce the  different  colors.  These  are  fused  together 
at  a  very  high  temperature.  The  hard  chunks  of 


IMITATIONS  AXD  How  TO  DETECT  197 

enamel  are  broken  by  a  hammer  and  then  ground  to  a 
fine  powder.  The  powder  is  mixed  with  water  and  ap- 
plied or  "charged"  to  the  object  to  be  coated  by  means  of 
a  small  spatula. 

After  each  coating  of  the  enamel  the  pearls  are  placed 
in  a  muffle  and  heated  to  a  high  temperature  by  electricity 
or  gas. 

The  muffle  is  an  oven  made  of  fire  clay.  When  the 
pearls  are  "fired"  sufficiently  the  enamel  fuses  and  they 
are  ready  to  be  taken  from  the  muffle.  When  they  are 
cool  they  are  "stoned/'  in  which  process  all  rough  parts 
are  filed  away  with  fine  carborundum  or  emery  stones. 

When  the  pearls  are  "stoned"  nicely  another  coat  of 
enamel  is  applied  to  them  and  when  they  are  dry  they 
are  "fired"  again  and  "stoned,"  and  so  on  until  the  pearls 
have  been  built  up  to  required  size.  They  are  then  stoned 
and  polished  and  ready  for  use.  They  are  very  fine  rep- 
resentations, but  as  far  as  colors  are  concerned  the  art 
has  not  reached  the  highest  state  of  perfection.  These 
can  be  distinguished  from  the  genuine  by  their  weight 
and  texture,  while  their  shiny  surface  suggests  their 
glassy  formation.  They  are,  however,  one  of  the  best 
imitations.  Another  clever  imitation  is  the  fish-skin  pearl. 
The  method  of  making  these  was  discovered  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  Hollow  glass  bulbs  or  beads  are  coated 
on  the  inside  with  a  composition  which  contains  a  large 
per  cent,  of  guanine,  the  mucus  which  lubricates  the 
scales  of  the  bleak  fish.  This  was  originally  called 
"Oriental  essence,"  and  still  goes  by  that  name  in  Ecouf- 
flians  and  Ponts-de-Ce. 


198  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

The  bleak  is  the  only  river  fish  in  France  that  is  not 
used  for  food.  They  are  very  abundant  in  the  Seine, 
Marne,  Moselle  and  Escaut  Rivers.  The  fishermen  use 
nets  and  catch  the  fish  by  thousands  as  they  travel  in 
shoals  in  the  current. 

To  obtain  the  ''Oriental  essence,"  the  fish  are  scraped 
over  a  shallow  tub  containing  a  small  amount  of  water. 
The  scales  are  then  washed  and  pressed  and  the  essence 
settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  tub.  It  requires  20,000  bleak 
fish  to  furnish  one  pound  of  the  essence.  The  essence 
is  very  brililant  and  if  a  drop  of  it  is  allowed  to  fall 
upon  water  the  guanine  floats  and  spreads,  exhibiting 
many  brilliant  colors. 

The  "Oriental"  essence  is  packed  in  tin  boxes  with  am- 
monia and  sent  to  Paris  where  it  is  used  in  manufactur- 
ing the  fish-skin  pearls.  Many  of  these  imitations  have 
a  very  delicate  cream  color  and  simulate  the  oriental 
pearls.  They  can  be  distinguished  from  genuine  pearls 
by  their  weight  and  glassy  shine. 

Glass  beads  are  very  commonly  used  as  imitation 
pearls.  Some  are  made  of  opal  glass  and  covered  with 
several  layers  of  isinglass  with  another  coating  of  a  mix- 
ture of  turpentine  and  copal  and  oil  and  afterwards  a 
thin  layer  of  tinted  soft  enamel  to  give  it  oriency.  Some 
opal  glass  beads  are  treated  with  fluoric  acid.  They  have 
a  ground  glass  appearance,  however,  which  reveals  their 
nature.  Hollow  glass  pearls  can  be  distinguished  in  sev- 
eral ways.  They  are  usually  coated  on  the  inside  and 
filled  with  wax.  The  ink  spot  test  is  a  good  one.  If  a 
small  drop  of  ink  is  placed  on  one  of  these  filled  beads, 


IMITATIONS  AND  How  TO  DETECT  199 

two  spots  can  be  seen  when  the  pearl  is  held  between  the 
eye  and  the  light.  One  of  these  is  the  reflection  of  the 
ink  spot  and  is  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  bead  resting 
against  the  wax.  The  reflected  spot  has  a  lighter  color 
than  the  original.  There  would  not  be  such  a  reflection 
in  a  genuine  pearl.  Hollow  beads  usually  have  one  or 
two  holes  in  them.  These  are  smooth  in  the  glass  beads, 
while  the  holes  in  real  pearls  have  a  rough  chalky  ap- 
pearance. Then,  too,  the  glass  beads  which  are  filled  with 
wax  nearly  always  appear  to  have  rings  in  the  glass 
around  the  holes. 

The  hollow  glass  beads  are  much  lighter  than  genuine 
pearls. 

The  solid  glass  beads  are  much  heavier  than  real  pearls 
and  are  not  transluscent  near  the  edge  of  the  circumfer- 
ence like  real  pearls. 

Black  pearls  are  imitated  by  making  balls  from  hema- 
tite and  polishing  them.  They  are,  however,  much  heavier 
than  real  pearls. 

Some  very  poor  white  pearls  are  drilled  and  tempo- 
rarily colored  by  boiling  them  in  a  black  color  which 
penetrates  through  the  strata  of  the  pearls.  These  often 
have  a  bronze  appearance  and  one  should  be  suspicious 
of  dark  colored  pearls  that  have  been  drilled. 

Some  gray  pearls  are  simulated  bymakingballsof  mother 
of  pearl  and  covering  them  with  silver.  Their  weight 
and  specific  gravity  are  the  same,  but  there  is  a  difference 
in  their  luster.  "Mock"  pearls  are  those  made  from 
mother  of  pearl  and  polished.  They  have  no  luster  and 
are  otherwise  easily  detected.  Another  poor  imitation  is 


2OO  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

made  by  grinding  mother  of  pearl  to  a  powder  and  soak- 
ing it  in  vinegar  and  mixing  it  with  gum  tragacanth.  This 
mixture  is  formed  into  balls  and  when  partially  dried 
they  are  placed  in  a  loaf  of  bread  and  baked  in  an  oven, 
after  which  they  are  coated  with  a  fish  scale  solution 
to  give  them  a  luster. 

Other  poor  imitations  are  balls  made  of  plaster  of 
Paris,  which  are  afterward  soaked  in  oil. 

The  most  deceptive  imitations  are  the  Japanese  cul- 
ture pearls,  the  "hard,"  or  enamel  pearls  and  the  best 
fish-skin  pearls. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 
Ax  INTERESTING  EXHIBIT  OF  PEARLS. 

AS  pearl  hunters  and  others  interested  in  pearls 
•  welcome  information  regarding  these  precious 
gems,  the  exhibit  of  pearls  in  the  Field  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History,  Chicago,  Illinois,  is  herein  de- 
scribed. The  collection  of  gems  that  during  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition  drew  so  many  to  the  Tiffany  pavil- 
ion in  the  Manufactures  Building,  and  to  the  gallery  of 
the  Mines  and  Mining  Building,  now  occupies  the  central 
cases  in  Higinbotham  Hall  in  the  Field  Museum. 

The  entire  collection  comprises  a  large  variety  of  gems 
and  precious  stones,  and  is  one  of  the  most  complete 
collections  in  existence.  Many  of  the  objects  are  of  un- 
usual interest  and  international  reputation 

The  large  variety  of  pearls  in  this  collection  is  espe- 
cially interesting.  Here  are  found  choice  pearls  from 
the  various  important  pearl  fisheries  of  the  world  care- 
fully described  so  the  visitor  may  make  a  thorough  study 
of  them.  One  case  contains  very  valuable  collections  of 
pearls  from  Japan,  Australia,  Algiers,  Singapore  and  Cali- 
fornia, and  also  pearl  oyster  shells,  fresh-water  mussels 
and  other  articles  of  interest. 

Another  case,  which  is  divided  into  three  sections, 
contains  a  valuable  collection  of  Indian  jewelry,  illus- 


201 


202  PEARLS  AND  PEARLING 

trating  the  remarkable  variety  of  ornaments  and  jewelry 
used  in  India  for  more  than  2,000  years.  The  first  divi- 
sion contains  many  valuable  gems  including  some  beauti- 
ful pearls  set  in  jewelry  and  embellished  with  rich  red 
and  green  enamels  peculiar  to  the  Indian  work. 

The  third  division  consists  principally  of  necklaces 
and  head  ornaments.  These  are  especially  noted  for  the 
large  number  of  pearls  that  are  used  in  their  construc- 
tion. 

A  pair  of  ear-rings  of  red  and  green  enamel  and  pearls 
from  Goa  add  to  the  value  of  the  collection  of  pearls  in 
this  division. 

Other  cases  contain  necklaces  and  other  valuable  jewels 
from  Brahma  Amritsar,  Jeypore,  Kathiawar  and  Colum- 
bia. 

All  who  visit  this  department  of  the  museum  will  find 
the  display  of  pearls  and  pearl  jewelry  of  great  in- 
terest. One  of  the  very  remarkable  features  of  this 
collection  of  gems  is  the  care  that  is  taken  of  the  col- 
lection. Probably  no  collection  of  European  crown 
jewels  is  guarded  more  vigilently  than  the  gems  of  the 
Field  Museum.  Day  and  night  armed  guards  watch  in- 
side the  room,  while  the  outside  is  constantly  protected 
by  patrolmen.  In  addition  the  jewel  cases  are  protected 
by  a  very  ingenious  and  complicated  electrical  system. 
Any  slight  change  in  the  cases  causes  alarm  bells  to  ring 
in  every  part  of  the  museum.  Even  the  shelves  which 
the  jewels  are  mounted  upon  are  balanced  in  such  a  deli- 
cate manner  that  the  removal  of  even  the  smallest  gem 
destroys  the  equilibrium  of  the  shelf  and  sounds  another 


AN  INTERESTING  EXHIBIT  OF  PEARLS  203 

set  of  burglar  alarms.  When  the  alarm  is  given,  all  en- 
trances and  exits  in  the  building  are  locked  and  an  emerg- 
ency call  is  flashed  to  a  nearby  police  station,  and  all  the 
museum  guards  hurry  to  the  jewel  room. 

This  Museum  is  more  accessible  for  the  pearl  hunters 
of  the  Middle  West.  Those  in  the  East  who  wish  to  ex- 
amine pearls  in  a  public  Museum  should  visit  the  Ameri- 
can Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York  City.  This 
Museum  has  a  collection  of  nearly  300  valuable  pearls 
from  the  various  pearl  fisheries. 

Another  smaller  collection  may  be  seen  in  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  United  States  National  Museum, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  I,  PAGES  168  and  169, 
AND  PLATE  II,  PAGES  184  AND  185. 

Plate  i.  No.  i,  Large  Round  Pink  Pearl,  64  grains; 
No.  2,  Large  Round  White  Pearl,  57  Grains ;  No.  3,  But- 
ton Pearl,  29  grains;  No.  4,  Green  and  Purple  Pearls,  3 
to  8  grains;  No.  5,  Pink  Pearls,  4  to  12  grains;  No.  6, 
Pear  or  Drop  Pearls;  No.  7,  Turtle  Back  Pearls;  No.  8, 
White  Pearls,  5  to  15  grains;  Nos.  9,  10  and  n,  Large, 
Medium  and  Small  Nuggets,  i  to  18  grains. 

Plate  2.  No.  12,  Large,  Clear  Slugs  and  odd  pieces, 
22  to  59  grains;  No.  13,  Rose  Buds,  or  Strawberry 
Pearls,  12  to  72  grains;  Nos.  14  and  15,  Baroques, 
Points  and  Wings;  No.  16,  Nuggets  and  Slugs;  Nos.  17, 
18  and  19,  Large,  Medium  and  Small  Points,  or  Dog 
Tooth  Pearls. 


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71  WEST  TWENTY-THIRD  STREET  NEW  YORK 


Mr.  Pearl  Fisherman! 


YOU   SELL   PEARLS 

Do  you  always  receive  the  full  value  of  your  find?  Haven't 
you  sent  out  goods  and  sold  them  at  a  figure  far  below  their 
value  because  you  haven't  had  another  market  to  send  them  to? 

Haven't  you  had  times  when  you  wanted  quick  returns  in  cash 
for  your  pearls  and  still  could  feel  that  you  were  getting  the 
best  market  prices? 

You  have  been  up  against  these  conditions  and  that  is  why  we 
state  here  that  — 

WE    BUY    PEARLS 

Are  always  in  the  market  for  high  grade  goods. 
Always  pay  top  notch  prices. 

Always  report  on  shipments  the  same  day  we  receive  them  and 
pay  cash. 

Always  return  goods,  shipping  charges  prepaid  if  our  offer  is 
not  accepted. 

We  have  been  buying  pearls  for  twenty-four  years. 

We  have  hundreds  of  steady  shippers  and  as  to  our  reliability 
we  refer  you  to  any  Banker  or  Jeweler  or  Dunn's  or  Bradstreet's 
Commercial  Agencies. 

CONVINCE   YOURSELF 

Send  your  next  lot  to  us,  packed  securely  in  a  sealed  package, 
by  Prepaid  Express  or  registered  mail  and  address  to 

BUNDE  &  UPMEYER  CO 

MILWAUKEE.      WISCONSIN 


If  you  are    interested    in 
Trapping,  Hunting,  Fish- 
ing,   Camping   and   Qut- 
J!     door  Life,  you  should  read 

Fur  News  Magazine 


A  Cover  Design  from  F.  N.  M. 


IT  CONTAINS 

Valuable  information  about 
trapping  and  hunting,  giv- 
ing methods  and  sets  of 
the  most  successful  Amer- 
ican and  Canadian  trap- 
pers and  hunters. 

Reliable  market  reports  and 
prices  on  raw  furs,  gin- 
seng and  other  roots  and 
herbs. 

Good  articles  on  outdoor  life,  camping,  woodcraft  and  fur 
farming. 

Gun  department,  of  interest  to  all  hunters  and  gun 
'  'cranks. " 

Articles  on  raising  ginseng  and  golden  seal. 

Lots  of  good  stories  and  letters  about  hunting,  trapping, 
fishing,  bee  hunting,  turtle  trapping  and  fur  buying. 

Valuable  articles  on  the  fur  business  and  other  interest- 
ing subjects. 

Fine  illustrations  from  photos  and  drawings. 

If  you  want  to  get  all  your  Raw  Furs  are  worth,  subscribe  for 


Published  Monthly 
$1.00  a  Year 


Sample  Copy 
Free 


Reg.  U.  S.  Pat.  Office 


FUR  NEWS  PUBLISHING  CO. 

71    WEST  TWENTY-THIRD   STREET  NEW   YORK 


PEARLS      SLUGS      NUGGETS 

H.  WILLARD,  SON  &  COMPANY  pay 

the  Highest  Market  Value  and  they  are  large 

handlers  of  nice  goods. 

<J  Send  them  in  by  registered  mail  or  express 

and  they  promptly  make  you  a  price  by  return 

mail,  and  if  not  entirely  satisfactory  they  will  be 

promptly  returned. 

€]  All  goods  held  1 0  days  subject  to  approval. 

H.  WILLARD,  SON  &  COMPANY 

'Pear/  T)ealers  Marshalltown,  Iowa 


MEYER  JEWELRY  CO. 


Buyers  of 


PEARLS 
PEARL  SLUGS 

also  Old  Gold  and  Silver 


BOLEY  BLDG.    ::    KANSAS  CITY,  MO. 

Reference:    All  Banks 


Fur  Farming  for  Profit 


FUR 
FARMING 

FOR- PROFIT 


A  Practical  Book  for  those  who  wish 
to  take  up  Fur  Farming  as  a  profitable 
occupation,  or  conduct  it  as  a  side  line 
with  other  sto'ck  raising. 

Fur  Farming  for  Profit  is  written  from 
the  knowledge  of  various  breeders  who 
have  learned  the  business  by  actual  ex- 
perience. It  is  Complete,  Correct 
and  Authenic. 

192  Pages    60  Illustrations    Cloth  Bound 
PRICE  75  CENTS 


FUR  NEWS  PUBLISHING  CO. 

71    WEST  TWENTY-THIRD    STREET  NEW   YORK 


Tt  is  easy  to  learn 

how  to  mount  birds, 

animals,  game  heads  and  fish,  also  how  to  make  novel- 
ties of  deer  horns,  deer  feet,  etc. ,  by  studying 

"THE   AMATEUR   TAXIDERMIST" 

You  can  then  mount  your  own  specimens  and  there  is  always 
work  for  the  man  who  understands  Taxidermy,  at  good  prices. 
Learn  this  art,  then  advertise  and  you  will  have  plenty  of  work. 

This  book  gives  more  information  on  this  subject  than  any  book 
or  correspondence  course  ever  written.  It  is  the  work  of  a  prac- 
tical taxidermist  of  many  years'  experience. 

"THE  AMATEUR  TAXIDERMIST"  is  finely  illustrated  with 
photographic  reproductions,  showing  specimens  of  mounted 
birds,  animals,  game  heads,  etc.  Each  chapter  is  accompanied 
by  a  full-page  plate,  consisting  of  from  one  to  fourteen  drawings 
fully  explaining  the  text. 

Price  50  Cents,  Postpaid 

FUR  NEWS  PUBLISHING  CO. 

71    WEST  TWENTY-THIRD   STREET  NEW   YORK 


. ..  1 


FOURTEEN  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 


This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
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LD  21-100m-2,'55 
(B139s22)476 


General  Library     . 
University  of  California 
Berkeley 


YB   1070) 


GENERAL  LIBRARY  -  U.C.  BERKELEY 


BDOD737D1S 


